Competitive Halal

 I hereby register my support for the Syndicate slaughterman halal

In english see:http://regulation.upf.edu/dublin-10-papers/5F3.pdf

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 The Market for Halal Certificates: Competitive Private Regulation O mercado dos certificados de Halal: Regulamento privado competitivo Frans van Waarden & Robin van Dalen Frans van Waarden & Robin van Dalen University College Utrecht Utrecht University College Paper presented at the third biennial conference of the ECPR Standing Documento apresentado na Conferência Bienal terço dos ECPR Permanente Groups on Regulation and Governance, University College, Dublin, Grupos em Regulação e Governança, do University College, Dublin, June 17‐19, 2010 17-19 junho de 2010

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2 2 Regulating Halal: a Case of ‐ as yet ‐ Private Regulation Regulador Halal: um caso de - ainda - a regulação privada On the one hand citizens expect and demand protection against ever more risks and uncertainties in Por um lado os cidadãos esperam e exigem proteção contra os riscos cada vez mais e as incertezas em life from their governments. vida de seus governos. Globalization has increased international dependencies: we may suffer A globalização aumentou a dependência internacional: podemos sofrer here from an outbreak of bird flu in Asia or from US house owners who can no longer afford to pay aqui a partir de um foco de gripe aviária na Ásia ou de proprietários de moradias nos EUA que já não podem pagar back their mortgages. volta as suas hipotecas. And the advances in science and technology, including ICT technology, have E os avanços da ciência e tecnologia, incluindo TIC, têm increased our awareness of risks that we hitherto may not have been aware of: the possible aumentamos nossa consciência dos riscos que até agora não ter tido conhecimento: a possível carcinogen effects of specific chemicals, the treat posed by a new flu virus somewhere in Mexico, the efeitos carcinogênico de substâncias químicas específicas, o tratamento colocados por um novo vírus da gripe em algum lugar no México, o outbreak of a volcano on Iceland. eclosão de um vulcão na Islândia. One we have knowledge of such risks we can no longer pretend not Uma temos conhecimento de tais riscos já não podemos fingir que não to know. saber. The media inform citizens as well as governments instantly across the globe about new Os meios de informar os cidadãos, bem como governos instantaneamente em todo o mundo sobre novas threats and risks. ameaças e riscos. Threats, crises and scandals get amplified, and it seems as if we live in a very insecure Ameaças, crises e escândalos são amplificadas, e parece que vivemos em um muito insegura and crisis‐ridden society. e cheias de crise da sociedade. In a way the instant diffusion of information adds not only to the crisis‐ De certa forma a difusão instantânea das informações acrescenta não só para a crise awareness, but also to the seriousness of the crisis. sensibilização, mas também para a gravidade da crise. Crises can become self‐fulfilling prophesies. As crises podem se tornar profecias auto-realizáveis. Fear of Medo de BSE‐food or dioxin‐poisoning creates a buyers' strike for beef and thus a crisis in the food sector. BSE alimentares ou de envenenamento dioxina cria compradores uma greve para a carne e, portanto, uma crise no setor de alimentos. A few Alguns ill‐advised words about the stability of the Euro uttered accidentally by a central bank or country Palavras mal-aconselhado sobre a estabilidade do euro proferidas acidentalmente por um banco central ou do país president can send the value of the Euro on financial markets down. presidente pode enviar o valor do euro nos mercados financeiros para baixo. Governments cannot disregard Os governos não podem ignorar this information about new risks, crisis, and scandals. informações sobre os novos riscos, crises e escândalos. They are expected to act forcefully and Eles devem agir com força e effectively. eficazmente. Failure to do so, resulting in even a minor number of victims, can become political suicide. Não fazê-lo, resultando até em um número menor de vítimas, podem tornar-se um suicídio político. On the other hand citizens expect less bureaucracy, understood both as structure ‐ Por outro lado os cidadãos esperam menos burocracia, entendida tanto como estrutura - government organizations and their employees, the 'bureaucrats' ‐ and as process ‐ tedious and overly organizações governamentais e seus empregados, os "burocratas" - e como processo - entediante e excessivamente formal bureaucratic hassles, procedures, forms. entraves burocráticos formais, procedimentos, formas. If there is one theme that seems to unite all parties Se há um tema que parece reunir todas as partes from left to right in the recent (2010) Dutch parliamentary elections than it is the call for 'less Da esquerda para a direita na recente (2010) holandês eleições parlamentares do que é a chamada para "menos government', 'less bureaucracy'. governo "," menos burocracia ". In order to solve the dilemma posed by these contradictory demands A fim de resolver o dilema colocado por essas exigências contraditórias for more government action but less government, states have been inclined to offload, outsource or para a ação governamental mais, mas menos do governo, os estados têm se inclinado para descarregar, terceirizar ou 'privatize' regulatory tasks: shifting the responsibility (and blame) to supra‐ and sub‐national levels of "Privatizar" as tarefas de regulamentação: transferir a responsabilidade (e culpa) e de sub-nacionais de níveis supra government, as well as to private actors or newly created more autonomous semi‐public ones, placed governo, bem como a entidades privadas ou recém-criados mais autônomos os semi-públicos, colocados at arms' length of accountable politicians. na 'parte de políticos responsáveis. There are, however, still risks for which governments have ‐ as yet ‐ managed to avoid Há, no entanto, ainda riscos para os quais os governos têm - ainda - conseguiu evitar responsibility. responsabilidade. This paper deals with such a case: the risk for Muslim citizens that they may eat or Este artigo trata de caso: o risco para os cidadãos muçulmanos que comam ou otherwise consume bad quality goods, goods which are forbidden by their religion, that are 'haram'. caso contrário consumir bens e serviços de má qualidade, as mercadorias que são proibidas pela sua religião, que são 'haram'. They need to know whether the products they buy and consume are 'halal'. Eles precisam saber se os produtos que compram e consomem são 'halal'. Such risks for Muslims Tais riscos para os muçulmanos have increased due to several developments. têm aumentado devido a vários fatores. First, the food value chain 'from farm to fork' is Em primeiro lugar, a cadeia de valor alimentar "do prado ao prato" é becoming ever longer, with more and more food products offered for sale being composed of many cada vez mais, com mais alimentos e mais postos à venda a ser composta de muitos ingredients, both from natural as well as industrial origin and having undergone a variety of ingredientes, tanto naturais como de origem industrial e que tenham sido submetidos a uma variedade de treatments. tratamentos. Secondly, these food value chains are also becoming global chains. Em segundo lugar, essas cadeias de valor dos alimentos também estão se tornando cadeias globais. Both factors make it Ambos os fatores tornam increasingly difficult to evaluate whether composition as well production methods satisfy Muslim food cada vez mais difícil avaliar se a composição, como também os métodos de produção de alimentos satisfazer muçulmanos standards. normas. Third, with the migration of Muslims to Western multicultural societies, Muslims get Em terceiro lugar, com a migração de muçulmanos ocidentais sociedades multiculturais, os muçulmanos começar confronted with a plethora of possible haram products on offer. confrontado com uma infinidade de produtos haram possíveis em oferta. Hence their risk of inadvertedly Daí seu risco de inadvertidamente consuming haram has increased. haram consumo aumentou. One could say that they are suffering from some form of crisis: risk Poderíamos dizer que eles estão sofrendo de algum tipo de crise: risco and uncertainty about whether they inherit the Muslim nirvana. ea incerteza sobre se eles herdarão o nirvana muçulmano. Yet governments in non‐Muslim countries including the Netherlands have refused to get No entanto, os governos dos países muçulmanos não incluindo os Países Baixos têm se recusado a receber involved in the regulation and enforcement of halal product standards. envolvidos na regulação e aplicação de normas de produtos halal. They do not see it as their Eles não o vêem como o seu responsibility to protect the religious security of their citizens. responsabilidade de proteger a segurança religiosa dos seus cidadãos. That is, this is not a case of increased Ou seja, este não é um caso de aumento complexity of regulation due to market liberalization, privatization and deregulation. complexidade da regulamentação, devido à liberalização, privatização e desregulamentação do mercado. It is a case É um caso complexity of (proto‐)regulation in a market that has already been a liberalized one and where complexidade do (proto-) regulação em um mercado que já foi um liberalizado e onde increasingly a need for regulation is being felt. cada vez mais uma necessidade de regulamentação está sendo sentida. It remains however to be seen how long Western governments will still be able to maintain Todavia, continua a ser visto por quanto tempo os governos ocidentais ainda será capaz de manter their position of non‐involvement. sua posição de não-envolvimento. The developments just mentioned do not only affect Muslim Os desenvolvimentos que acabamos de mencionar não só afetam muçulmanos minorities in Western countries but also Muslim majorities in Muslim countries. minorias nos países ocidentais, mas também maiorias muçulmanas em países muçulmanos. And the Netherlands, E na Holanda, being traditionally a major exporter of food products, exports also increasingly to such Muslim sendo tradicionalmente um grande exportador de produtos alimentícios, as exportações também cada vez mais para muçulmanos como countries with the increase in prosperity in these countries. países com o aumento da prosperidade nesses países.

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3 3 The global market for halal products is currently estimated to be at 1.6 O mercado global de produtos Halal é actualmente estimada em 1,6 1 1 ‐1.8 billion consumers ‐ -1.800 Milhões de consumidores - one out of every four human beings. um em cada quatro seres humanos. The estimates of the global product value depend on which As estimativas do valor do produto global dependem do products and services are being included. produtos e serviços estão sendo incluídos. For halal food alone the estimate was $634.6 billion, but if Para alimentos halal sozinho a estimativa era de 634,6 bilhões dólares, mas se one included other goods and services where halal is important (cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, clothing, um incluídos outros bens e serviços, onde halal é importante (, medicamentos, roupas de cosméticos, financial services, hotel operations, even tour packages) the Malaysian Halal Industry Development serviços financeiros, as operações do hotel, até pacotes turísticos) da Malásia Halal Desenvolvimento da Indústria Corporation, a rather professional organization in this world, comes to an estimate of $ 2.1 trillion Corporation, uma organização profissional e não neste mundo, vem com uma estimativa de 2,1 trillion dólares 2 2 . . Quality Problems have haunted this trade. Problemas de qualidade têm assombrado a este comércio. There have already been cases of Muslim countries Já houve casos de países muçulmanos destroying whole shiploads of Dutch meat products because of uncertainty over their 'halal quality'. destruindo toda carregamentos de produtos de carne holandesa por causa da incerteza sobre a sua "qualidade halal». This implies that what seems to be a 'private interest' of a limited 'public' within the broader Dutch Isto implica que o que parece ser um "interesse privado" de uma "limitada" público mais amplo dentro do Holandês public, is about to become also a interest of the whole Dutch public, the public interest in exports, público, está prestes a se tornar também um interesse do público holandês todo, o interesse público em exportações, economic growth, jobs, prosperity. crescimento económico, emprego, prosperidade. The private Muslim interest has also Dutch public interest O interesse privado muçulmano também interesse público holandês dimensions. dimensões. Just as has been the case around 1900 with Dutch dairy export interests. Assim como foi o caso por volta de 1900 com a exportação de leite interesses holandeses. Scandals over Escândalos Dutch butter and cheese exports in among others the United Kingdom eventually led the Dutch manteiga holandês e exportação de queijos, entre outros no Reino Unido levou os holandeses government to enact one of its first food quality laws, the Landbouwkwaliteitswet . governo para aprovar uma de suas primeiras leis de qualidade dos alimentos, o Landbouwkwaliteitswet. In the absence of any public regulation there have been private initiatives for halal quality Na ausência de qualquer regulação pública tem havido iniciativas privadas de qualidade halal regulation. regulamento. The demand for risk reduction, ie for information about the halal quality of food and other A demanda por redução de risco, ou seja, para obter informações sobre a qualidade dos alimentos halal e outros products, has been answered by a supply of private regulation in the form of organizations offering produtos, tem sido atendida por uma oferta de regulação privada na forma de organizações que oferecem halal certification and halal hallmarks. certificação halal e timbres halal. The market for halal products has given rise to a derived market: O mercado para produtos halal deu origem a um mercado de derivados: a new market for information and halal certification. um novo mercado de informação e certificação halal. Whereas in other policy areas there has been a Considerando que em outras áreas políticas, houve uma vertical as well as horizontal proliferation of public and semi‐public regulatory authorities, here there vertical, bem como a proliferação horizontal de instituições públicas e semi-públicas das autoridades reguladoras, aqui não has been a horizontal proliferation of private organizations trying to regulate the halal market through tem havido uma proliferação horizontal de organizações privadas tentar regular o mercado halal através certification. certificação. However, in the background also public authorities may come to play a role, in particular No entanto, no fundo também os poderes públicos podem vir a desempenhar um papel, em especial also foreign public authorities from Muslim countries that are about to get called in to provide também estrangeiros autoridades públicas de países muçulmanos que estão prestes a ser chamado para prestar authority to the certificates of some Dutch domestic commercial certifiers. autoridade para os certificados de alguns doméstico holandês certificadoras comerciais. This paper gives an overview of the Dutch market for Halal certificates. Este artigo fornece uma visão geral do mercado holandês para os certificados de Halal. It discusses a number Discute-se um número of typical problems on such a market of information and private certifying regulation: establishing de problemas típicos nesse mercado de informação e regulação de certificação privada: o estabelecimento reputations and credibility, securing funding, organizing inspections and effective enforcement, reputação e credibilidade, para garantir o financiamento, a organização de inspecções e aplicação efectiva, developing credible sanctions, managing diversity (there are different degrees of Halal as well as desenvolvimento de sanções credíveis, gestão da diversidade (existem diferentes graus de Halal, assim como different teachings and different degrees of strictness), market failures, fierce and unfair competition, ensinamentos diferentes e diferentes graus de severidade), falhas de mercado, concorrência feroz e injusta, Intransparency, fraud and 'Halal laundering', regulatory competition among private regulators, "Halal lavagem 'falta de transparência da fraude e, a concorrência entre os reguladores de regulamentação privada, whereby bad products threaten to drive the good ones from the market, leading eventually to loss of qual ruim produtos ameaçam conduzir os bons do mercado, levando eventualmente à perda de trust of consumers in the certificates, and ineffectiveness of regulation through certification. confiança dos consumidores nos certificados e da ineficácia da regulação por meio de certificação. Furthermore, the paper investigates a number of solutions that have been tried to counter such Além disso, o trabalho investiga uma série de soluções que têm sido tentadas para combater tal problems, including accreditation by foreign organizations in some Muslim countries like Turkey or problemas, incluindo a acreditação de organizações estrangeiras em alguns países muçulmanos como a Turquia ou Malaysia. Malásia. The case is hence interesting for various reasons: the difficult relation between state, O caso é, portanto, interessante por várias razões: a difícil relação entre Estado, markets, and civil society, the latter here in the form of religious communities; the problems of mercados e da sociedade civil, o último aqui na forma de comunidades religiosas, os problemas de regulation through private certification in market‐like situations; all with an international relations regulação por meio de certificação privados-como situações de mercado, tudo com um relações internacionais dimension. dimensão. 1. 1. Introduction: State Involvement in Regulating Halal? Introdução: O envolvimento do Estado na regulação Halal? History abounds with market failures: assymatric information, absence of regulation and products that A história está repleta de falhas de mercado: informações assymatric, ausência de regulação e produtos que are easily tampered with all give rise to markets in which goods are not so easy to trade, or even lead são facilmente adulterados dar origem a todos os mercados em que as mercadorias não são tão fáceis de comercializar, ou mesmo levar to a complete absence of trade as was theorized by Akerlof with the “lemon's problem” (Akerlof, a uma ausência completa de comércio como foi teorizado por Akerlof com o "problema de limão" (Akerlof, 1970). , 1970). The absence of trust in such markets does not only reduce prosperity as economic activity A falta de confiança nesses mercados não só reduzir a prosperidade como uma actividade económica 1 1 CIA Factbook. Religions . CIA Factbook. Religiões. Retrieved on https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the‐world‐ Página visitada em https: www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world- / / factbook/docs/notesanddefs.html?countryName=World&countryCode=xx®ionCode=oc#2122 factbook / docs / notesanddefs.html? countryName = World & countryCode = xx & regionCode = oc # 2122 2 2 http://www.hdcglobal.com/portal/indices/index_219.html http://www.hdcglobal.com/portal/indices/index_219.html

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4 4 decreases, but has also consequences for society at large. diminui, mas também tem conseqüências para a sociedade em geral. Distrust is sand in the cogwheels of society, A desconfiança é areia nas engrenagens da sociedade, in the economy, politics and government administration. na economia, política e administração pública. Many have already pointed to the dangers of Muitos já apontam para os perigos do a decrease of mutual trust for the social structure in society (Fukuyama 1995, Putnam 1993). uma diminuição da confiança mútua para a estrutura social da sociedade (Fukuyama, 1995, Putnam, 1993). Problems Problemas of certificate inflation, product laundering, and collective action produce calls for yet a higher or more certificado de inflação, a lavagem do produto, e produzir a ação coletiva exige ainda uma maior ou mais respected authority to back up the reputation of the certificates or even to take over the responsibility respeitada autoridade para fazer a reputação dos certificados ou até mesmo assumir a responsabilidade for the certifying itself. para a certificação em si. Such an authority could in principle be anyone whom the customers consider Essa autoridade poderá, em princípio, qualquer pessoa que os clientes consideram an authority, varying from God and his representatives on earth to expert scientists to pop stars, film uma autoridade, variando de Deus e seus representantes na terra, para os cientistas peritos às estrelas pop, o filme stars, soccer heroes or other charismatic figures. estrelas, os heróis do futebol ou de outras figuras carismáticas. A critical press broadcasting critical consumer A radiodifusão imprensa crítica consumidor crítico programs such as in the Netherlands 'Zembla' or 'Keuringsdienst van Waarde' could also contribute. programas, como na Holanda "Zembla" ou "van Keuringsdienst Waarde 'também poderia contribuir. However, in our secular society the last authority has sooner or later has become the state, as No entanto, em nossa sociedade secular a autoridade última, mais cedo ou mais tarde tornou-se o Estado, como it is considered 'the ultimate risk manager' (Moss 2002). é considerado 'o gerente de risco final "(Moss, 2002). It has in principle the power to enforce its Ele tem, em princípio, o poder de impor a sua standards. normas. Furthermore, most citizens believe the state to be more neutral and objective than private Além disso, a maioria dos cidadãos acreditam que o Estado seja mais neutro e objetivo do que privado actors with their particularistic self‐interests, because a) it does not need to be directly paid by those atores com seus próprios interesses particularistas, porque a) não precisam ser pagas directamente pelos to be certified, as it can fund its work out of general tax income; and b) it is accountable to the general a ser certificada, pois pode financiar o seu trabalho fora de imposto de renda geral, e b) é responsável perante o geral public, ic to the control institutions typically of a democratic constitutional state. pública, IC para as instituições de controle normalmente de um Estado democrático constitucional. After all, in such a Afinal, em tal democratic country the state is 'from us all' and therefore expected to represent the 'public interest'. país democrático, o estado é "de todos nós 'e, portanto, deve representar o" interesse público ". What is more, as long as citizens trust the state to be so, it is sufficient for public certification to do the Além disso, enquanto a confiança dos cidadãos do estado para ser assim, é suficiente para a certificação pública para fazer o job of providing trust of potential transaction partners in markets. trabalho de fornecer confiança dos parceiros transação potencial nos mercados. Given the public interest in facilitating and encouraging economic transactions, states have Dado o interesse público em facilitar e incentivar transações econômicas, os estados têm early on assumed a role in ordering markets. desde cedo assumiu um papel na ordenação dos mercados. The centuries old process of state formation went hand in O antigo processo de séculos de formação do Estado passou de mão em hand with increase in transactions and economic growth, whereby the one facilitated the other and mão com aumento das operações e do crescimento económico, pelo que o facilitou o outro e vice versa. vice-versa. The increase in trade and prosperity allowed for surpluses to be taxed to fund the state and O aumento do comércio e da prosperidade permitido para os excedentes a serem tributados para financiar o Estado e its regulatory and enforcement organizations. e à aplicação das organizações reguladoras. Conversely, the market ordering by the state reduced Por outro lado, o mercado de ordenação pelo estado reduzido the risk of transactions, thereby facilitating and increasing them. o risco das operações, facilitando e aumentando-os. In this study we intend to focus now on a case which forms an exception to the rule that where Neste estudo pretendemos focar agora em um caso que constitui uma exceção à regra que, quando a public interest is involved, sooner or later public regulation in one way or another has emerged: the um interesse público está envolvido, mais cedo ou mais tarde regulação pública de um modo ou de outro surgiu: o reduction of risks and uncertainties for buyers of a special kind of products, halal products , products redução dos riscos e incertezas para os compradores de um tipo especial de produtos, produtos halal, os produtos that are safe for Muslims to consume or use. que sejam seguras para os muçulmanos a consumir ou usar. There is a clear public interest involved here (albeit a Há um claro interesse público envolvido aqui (embora different one for different 'publics') but as yet there is no involvement of public authorities and um diferente para diferentes "públicos"), mas como ainda não há envolvimento de autoridades públicas e employment of public resources, such as tax money, the neutral reputation of the state, and binding emprego de recursos públicos, como o dinheiro dos impostos, a reputação neutra do Estado, e obrigatória regulations backed by criminal or administrative sanctions. regulamentares ou administrativas apoiada por sanções penais. The Dutch state has refrained from intervening here, at least with economic public law O governo holandês tem-se abstido de intervir aqui, pelo menos com o direito público econômico measures. medidas. (It does of course back private contracts by civil law.) It only feels a responsibility for the (É, é claro, de volta contratos privados de direito civil.) Ele só se sente uma responsabilidade para a physical well‐being of its citizens and hence controls whether food ‐ an important halal product ‐ is bem-estar físico dos seus cidadãos e, portanto, controla se alimentar - um produto halal importante - é safe for the body, not for the soul. seguro para o corpo, não para a alma. The Dutch state does not feel responsible for the enforcement of O Estado holandês não se sentem responsáveis ​​pela aplicação da religious standards for food or other products. padrões religiosos de alimentos ou outros produtos. Even if the state would get involved, it is questionable whether the specific public (Muslim Mesmo que o Estado teria se envolvido, é questionável se a públicos específicos (muçulmanos consumers and traders) would even like the secular Dutch state authorities to get involved, whether consumidores e comerciantes) gostaria mesmo o secular autoridades estaduais holandês para se envolver, se they would trust it enough, or even see a task in the enforcement of their religious standards. confiariam o suficiente, ou mesmo ver uma tarefa na aplicação das suas normas religiosas. In the absence of such state intervention a market for private halal‐certification and product‐ Na ausência de intervenção do Estado como um mercado privado para certificação halal e produtos information is evolving both in West‐European countries and globally, which forms an interesting case informação está a evoluir tanto em países da Europa Ocidental e no mundo, que constitui um caso interessante for studying both the ups and downs, strengths and weaknesses, problems and solutions of a newly para estudar tanto os altos e baixos, pontos fortes e fracos, problemas e soluções de um recém- emerging market, as well as for studying its capacity as a private regulator for another market, that of mercados emergentes, bem como para estudar a sua capacidade como um regulador do mercado privado para uma outra, a de the halal‐products that it certifies. o halal produtos que certifica.

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5 5 2. 2. A New Market: The Demand for Halal Product Certification Um novo mercado: a demanda por certificação de produtos Halal 2.1. 2.1. The Problem: Halal Trade Fraud, Adulteration and Halal O Problema: Fraude Comércio Halal, adulteração e Halal Laundering Branqueamento On January 21, 2010, the Dutch TV program Keuringsdienst van Waarde ('Inspection of Em 21 de janeiro de 2010, o programa de TV holandês van Keuringsdienst Waarde ("Inspeção de Value/Commodities') aired a critical documentary on the quality of döner kebab under the title Valor / Commodities ") exibiu um documentário crítico sobre a qualidade de döner kebab, sob o título 'investigating the exotic ground‐meat stick' ('Keuringsdienst van Waarde onderzoekt de exotische "Investigar o pau-terra exótica carne» («Keuringsdienst van Waarde onderzoekt de exotische gehaktstaaf' http://sites.rvu.nl/page/7202) . gehaktstaaf 'http://sites.rvu.nl/page/7202). The journalists bought a random sample of 10 such Os jornalistas compraram uma amostra aleatória de 10, tais Turkish sandwiches sold as made of “100% lamb” from different snack shops and had them analyzed in sanduíches turcos vendidos como feita de "100% de borrego" de lanchonetes diferentes e eles tinham analisado em a laboratory. um laboratório. Only 1 of them turned out to be really that what it was pretended to be: 100% lamb Apenas um deles acabou por ser realmente que o que se pretendia ser: 100% de cordeiro meat. carne. The others were made of: 1x 100% mutton, 1x 100% beef, 1 x 100% turkey, 1 x 100% chicken, 5 Os outros foram feitos de: 100% de carneiro 1x, 1% da carne 100, 1 x 100% de peru, 1 x 100% de frango, 5 x a mixture of mutton and beef, and, believe it or not, one sandwich, sold as lamb, was made of 100% xa mistura de carne de carneiro e carne bovina, e, acredite ou não, um sanduíche, vendido como cordeiro, foi feita de 100% pork. carne de porco. Now, getting cheated is already a hassle for any consumer. Agora, ser enganado já é um incômodo para qualquer consumidor. But for a practicing Muslim consumer Mas para o consumidor muçulmano praticante to buy lamb and get pork is a way more serious affair. comprar cordeiro e carne de porco é obter uma forma mais coisa séria. Lamb is 'halal' or pure; pork is 'haram', unclean Cordeiro é "halal", ou puro, carne de porco é 'haram', imundo or even sinful. ou até mesmo pecaminosa. It is about the worst that can happen to a devout Muslim. É sobre o pior que pode acontecer a um muçulmano devoto. Already to be in the Já estar na neighborhood of pork or eating something that has been transported in the same van as pork is a bairro de carne de porco ou comer algo que tenha sido transportado na carrinha mesmo a carne de porco é um threat to salvation. ameaça para a salvação. However, the sandwiches were cheap: 2 euros on average. No entanto, os sanduíches eram baratas: 2 € em média. The TV‐journalists went also to A TV-jornalistas foram também Germany ‐ where döner kebab originated ‐ and confronted kebab sellers there with the story. Alemanha - onde se originou döner kebab - e confrontou os vendedores kebab lá com a história. They Eles were highly surprised: 'Of course for 2 euros it could never have been pure lamb, as that is much more foram altamente surpreso: "É claro para 2 euros que nunca poderia ter sido cordeiro puro, que é muito mais expensive! caro! They must have put in all kinds of garbage!'. Eles devem ter colocado em todos os tipos de lixo! ". Pork, but also mutton and beef are cheaper Carne de porco, mas também carne de carneiro e carne bovina são mais baratas ingredients. ingredientes. And Dutch consumers are known to be price buyers when it comes to food, in comparison E os consumidores holandeses são conhecidos por serem compradores preço quando se trata de alimentos, em comparação to other national cultures ‐ Italy, Germany, France ‐ where food quality is higher valued and people are para outras culturas nacionais - Itália, Alemanha, França - onde a qualidade dos alimentos é maior e as pessoas são valorizadas willing to pay higher prices for quality (Van Waarden 2006). dispostos a pagar preços mais elevados para a qualidade (Van Waarden 2006). What is more, customers of kebab booths Além disso, os clientes das cabines kebab are not likely to be critical, sophisticated and dainty gourmets, but youngsters looking for a quick, não são susceptíveis de serem críticos e delicados paladares sofisticados, mas os jovens à procura de uma maneira rápida, nourishing and cheap snack. lanche nutritivo e barato. Apart from price competition, sellers may be tempted to use cheaper ingredients than Além da competição de preços, os vendedores poderão ser tentados a utilizar ingredientes mais baratos do que pretended in order to reap extra profits. fingiu, a fim de colher lucros adicionais. Even if it would mean that they would cheat fellow Muslims Mesmo se isso significaria que eles enganam seus companheiros muçulmanos on their road to Allah's nirvana. no seu caminho para o nirvana Deus. Whether the incentive would be to lower costs and prices (in order to Se o incentivo seria de reduzir os custos e preços (para withstand or outperform competition) or to reap extra profits, the effects would be the same: lower suportar ou superar a concorrência) ou a obtenção de lucros extra, o efeito seria o mesmo: menor food quality. qualidade dos alimentos. The temptation to follow such a strategy is of course facilitated if consumers cannot easily A tentação de seguir uma estratégia deste tipo é, obviamente, facilitada se os consumidores não podem facilmente judge product quality. qualidade do produto juiz. Typically, transactions involving food are characterized by information Normalmente, as operações que envolvam alimentos são caracterizados por informações asymmetries. assimetrias. The seller tends to know more about the quality than the buyer. O vendedor tende a saber mais sobre a qualidade do que o comprador. Where, when, and Onde, quando e under what conditions was it harvested, preserved, processed, stored, and mixed? as condições em que foi colhida, preservados, processados, armazenados e misturados? The asymmetries As assimetrias increase as the distance from farm to fork increases, that is, as consumers cannot themselves trace aumentar à medida que a distância da fazenda à mesa aumenta, ou seja, os consumidores não se pode rastrear food products (any more) to the original producers and with already only a few more intermediaries produtos alimentares (mais) para os produtores originais e já com apenas mais alguns intermediários and processes in the food value chain this becomes practically impossible. e processos na cadeia de valor alimentar isto se torna praticamente impossível. Furthermore, as the food Além disso, como a comida chain gets longer, original foodstuffs get cut up, processed, mixed, etc. in a great many combinations, cadeia, maior é obter alimentos original cortada, transformado, etc, misturados em um grande muitas combinações, resulting eventually in the ready made foodstuffs that we nowadays find in the supermarkets, all resultando eventualmente na efectuadas alimentos prontos que podemos encontrar hoje em dia nos supermercados, todos os unimaginable when Mohammed wrote his food laws around the year 600 (Although Muslims believe inimaginável quando Maomé escreveu alimentar suas leis ao redor do ano 600 (Embora os muçulmanos acreditam that He had foreseen everything, so this as well). Ele que tinha previsto tudo, de modo que este também). The consumer cannot know anymore what all went in O consumidor não pode saber mais do que tudo correu na the making of the food that he gets or puts on his plate. a confecção do alimento que ele recebe ou coloca em seu prato. Chewing gum, candy and chocolate contain Mascar, balas de goma e chocolate contêm gelatin as a thickening agent that may be derived from pork skins and bones. gelatina como espessante que pode ser derivada a partir de peles e ossos de porco. Many Muslims know this Muitos muçulmanos sabem disso about candy, but less known is that it may also concern chocolate. sobre o doce, mas menos conhecido é que ele pode também chocolate preocupação. Additives like the E‐numbers 472, Aditivos como os números E 472, 441, 485, and 471 are also likely to be haram. 441, 485 e 471 também são susceptíveis de ser haram. But will Muslims shoppers go around with a long list of E‐ Mas os compradores muçulmanos vão sair por aí com uma longa lista de E- numbers, checking every individual product? números, verificando a cada produto individual? The best one can do is to believe the information that the O melhor que podemos fazer é acreditar que as informações que o producer has put on the package. produtor colocou no pacote. But even that requires frequently quite a leap of faith. Mas mesmo que requer freqüentemente um grande salto de fé. The distances As distâncias in space and culture, and the decomposition and recomposition processes, provide countless no espaço e cultura, e os processos de decomposição e recomposição, fornecem inúmeras

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6 6 opportunities for fraud and deception. oportunidades para a fraude eo engano. This holds all the more for halal food, as quite a few of its Isso vale ainda mais para a comida halal, como alguns de seus standards are process standards rather than product standards. normas são normas de processo ao invés de normas de produto. The latter can in principle be tested at Este último pode, em princípio, ser testadas em the final product, the former not, making it even more difficult to detect fraud. o produto final, o primeiro não, tornando ainda mais difícil detectar a fraude. Notwithstanding these detection problems, stories about fraud with halal products abound. Apesar destes problemas, detecção histórias sobre fraudes com produtos halal são muitas. The kebab story just mentioned is only one among many cases of fraud and deception of Muslims with A história que acabamos de mencionar kebab é apenas um entre muitos casos de fraude e manipulação de muçulmanos com supposedly 'halal' food. 'Halal' comida supostamente. In November 2009 the general Inspection Service ( Algemene Inspectiedienst Em novembro de 2009, o Serviço de Inspeção geral (Algemene Inspectiedienst AID) from the Dutch Ministry of Agriculture raided Fasen Meat Trading, a meat wholesaler from Breda. AID) do Ministério da Agricultura holandês invadiu Fasen Meat Trading, um atacadista de carne de Breda. Using forged documents the company sold several thousand tons of meat wrongly as halal to Muslims Usando documentos falsos, a empresa vendeu vários milhares de toneladas de carne errada como halal para os muçulmanos in France. na França. (Volkskrant Nov. 26, 2009). (Volkskrant 26 de novembro de 2009). In October 2009 the Belgian hall federation claimed that 60 Em outubro de 2009, a federação belga salão alegou que 60 percent of all halal products sold in that country would be impure. por cento de todos os produtos halal vendidos no país seriam impuros. Modern methods of food preparing and processing poses special problems. Modernos métodos de preparar alimentos e processamento apresenta problemas especiais. Take the case of Tomemos o caso de chicken filets. filés de frango. When Muslims buy chicken, they may be under the impression that that is halal. Quando os muçulmanos comprar frango, podem ter a impressão de que isso é halal. They Eles think they buy halal meat, but, in our modern day and age of food manipulation they cannot be sure. acho que eles compram carne halal, mas, na nossa era moderna de manipulação de alimentos que não podem ter certeza. In June 2003 Dutch agricultural minister Veerman admitted in a letter to the Dutch parliament that 'in Em junho de 2003 o ministro holandês agrícolas Veerman admitiu em uma carta ao parlamento holandês que, «em Dutch chicken products, which have been sold as halal or kosher meat, beef or pork proteins may have produtos de frango holandeses, que foram vendidos como halal ou kosher de carne bovina, de porco ou de proteínas pode ter possibly been added'. possivelmente tenham sido adicionados. The newspaper De Volkskrant explains: 'Many salted Thai or Brazilian chicken O jornal De Volkskrant explica: 'tailandês salgados ou frango brasileira Muitos filets, imported by Dutch poultry processors, are being “tumbled” The salt is washed of the chicken filés, importados por processadores de aves holandês, está sendo "tombado" O sal é lavado do frango and the meat is subsequently again “brought up to taste” with water and animal proteins, often also ea carne é posteriormente de novo "trouxe até gosto" com proteínas animais e água, muitas vezes também pork or beef proteins. ou proteínas da carne de porco. Except for being “brought up to taste”, the chicken filets are thus also made Exceto por ser "trazido até gosto", os filés de frango são, portanto, também fez several tens of percent heavier, ie it allows the producers to sell water as 'chicken' and for the price várias dezenas de milhares de por cento mais pesado, ou seja, permite aos produtores vender a água como "galinha" e para o preço of 'chicken'. de "galinha". Such additions are permitted in the EU as there is no danger to public health danger.' Essas inclusões são permitidos na UE, não há perigo para perigo de saúde pública. " Yet No entanto, it does pose a danger to the moral health and peace of mind of Muslims and Jews. ele não representa um perigo para a saúde moral e paz de espírito dos muçulmanos e judeus. And they had no E não tinham way of knowing, as frequently these additions were not mentioned on the product labels, as the forma de saber, como freqüentemente esses acréscimos não foram mencionadas nos rótulos dos produtos, como o Minister admitted ('Geknoei met smaak kip niet altijd op etiketten', De Volkskrant June 16, 2003). Ministro admitiu ("Geknoei encontrou niet kip Smaak altijd op Etiketten, De Volkskrant 16 junho de 2003). Muslims are not alone in their distrust of food. Os muçulmanos não estão sozinhos em suas desconfianças de alimentos. According to the Consumer Monitor 2004 of De acordo com o Monitor do Consumidor de 2004, the Dutch Food Inspection VWA only 2 out of every 3 Dutchmen and ‐women considered the food on os holandeses de Inspeção de Alimentos APV só 2 em cada 3 holandeses, e mulheres, considerado o alimento em the shelves of the store sufficiently safe. as prateleiras da loja suficientemente seguro. Poorest scores were there for chicken (trusted by only 33%), escores mais pobres estavam lá para o frango (confiável por apenas 33%), ready‐made‐meals (36%), and vitamin tablets (43%). pronto-refeições (36%), e comprimidos de vitaminas (43%). More trust was there in bread (82%) and cheese Maior confiança estava lá no pão (82%) e queijo (80%) (Schouten and Timmers 2005). (80%) (Schouten e Timmers, 2005). Distrust can be expensive, especially if it gets confirmed by scientific evidence. A desconfiança pode ser caro, especialmente se ficar confirmado por evidências científicas. It can be Pode ser expensive for the peace of mind, but also for the purse, arguments that each may appeal to one of the caro para a paz de espírito, mas também para a bolsa, os argumentos que cada um pode recorrer a uma das two classic cultural identities of the Dutch, that of the preacher, and of the merchant. dois clássicos identidades culturais dos holandeses, a do pregador, e do comerciante. In 1978 Egypt Em 1978, o Egito dumped eight containers of so‐called 'Beef Lanchos' from Dutch meat producer Zwanenberg into the despejado oito contêineres de carne Lanchos 'chamado' do produtor de carne holandesa Zwanenberg no Red Sea. Mar Vermelho. These Lanchos were a mixture of beef fat and powdered pig bones, and were, Estes Lanchos eram uma mistura de gordura e os ossos da carne de porco em pó, e foram, notwithstanding the names, 99% pork. Não obstante os nomes, 99% de carne de porco. Before, Egypt did not have the right equipment to analyze the Antes, o Egito não tinha o equipamento adequado para analisar a composition. composição. Saudi Arabia did, and sold it in 1978 also to Egypt, and the fraud was detected. A Arábia Saudita fez, e vendeu, em 1978, também ao Egito, e que a fraude foi detectada. Subsequently, The Netherlands was blacklisted for a while by several Middle East countries (HIC Posteriormente, a Holanda foi posto por um tempo por vários países do Médio Oriente (HIC interview). entrevista). Sometime later, Saudi Arabia confiscated a ship full with shoes from China. Algum tempo depois, a Arábia Saudita confiscou um navio cheio de sapatos da China. The boxes read As caixas de ler 'manufactured according to Islam rules', unjustified. "De acordo com normas Islã", justifica. The ship load was completely burned at the cost A carga do navio era completamente queimado no custo of the exporter, the ship was chained for 21 days, the costs, all at the cost of the exporter, and the do exportador, o navio foi acorrentado por 21 dias, os custos, tudo ao custo do exportador, e os captain and crew were jailed. capitão ea tripulação foram presos. (interview Farouk) (Entrevista Farouk) The Saudis and Egyptians could afford costly laboratory methods and protect their citizens Os sauditas e egípcios podiam métodos laboratoriais caros e proteger os seus cidadãos from haram food and shoes. de alimentos haram e sapatos. However Muslim consumers in Europe living in a dominant non‐Muslim No entanto os consumidores muçulmanos em viver a Europa numa posição dominante não-muçulmano society have no state controls which to trust and neither can they afford such expensive investigations sociedade têm nenhum controle estatal que a confiança e nem podem pagar caro essas investigações themselves. si mesmos. This case brought however the importance of halal‐certification for exports home and led Este caso trouxe contudo a importância da certificação halal para casa e levou as exportações to the first private attempts at halal certification, encouraged by rich Middle East countries which are para o privado primeiras tentativas de certificação halal, incentivado por ricos países do Médio Oriente, que são major meat consumers. grandes consumidores de carne. 2.1.1. 2.1.1. Food Adulteration, Food Laundering and Food Regulation in general Adulteração de alimentos, lavagem de Alimentos e Alimentação regulamento em geral Food adulteration has been a practice from time immemorial. a adulteração dos alimentos tem sido uma prática desde tempos imemoriais. Bread has been diluted with plaster, O pão foi diluída com gesso, sand, bone meal and even poisonous lead‐white; milk with ditchwater; water has been added to wine; areia, farinha de ossos e até mesmo venenosa conduzir-branco, leite com ditchwater, a água foi adicionada ao vinho; and beer was given a more hop‐like flavor with arsenic (Rougoor 2003: 24). ea cerveja foi dada a mais-como o sabor de lúpulo com arsénio (Rougoor 2003: 24). Time and again bunglers e novamente trapalhões Tempo

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7 7 have popped up, in different disguises and in different markets, especially new emerging ones, and surgiram desde então, em disfarces diferentes e em diferentes mercados, especialmente os novos emergentes, e caused sooner or later scandals (see for a recent overview of food adulteration scandals Bee Wilson causados ​​cedo ou mais tarde escândalos (ver, por uma visão recente de escândalos adulteração de alimentos Bee Wilson 2008). 2008). Adulteration was also of concern for industry. A adulteração foi também motivo de preocupação para a indústria. As the reputation of Dutch agriculture and dairy Como a reputação da agricultura holandesa e produtos lácteos worsened, they lost their traditional export markets, the surrounding industrialized nations. agravou, eles perderam seus mercados tradicionais de exportação, os países industrializados das nações vizinhas. Ever since, Desde então, trade interests have dominated Dutch food standards. interesses comerciais têm dominado as normas alimentares holandês. (Geluk 1967, Van Waarden 1985) (Geluk 1967, Van Waarden 1985) Such scandals have frequently been a cause for regulation. Tais escândalos têm sido frequentemente motivo de regulamentação. Therefore, statutory food , Estatutárias alimentos Assim regulations have been almost as old as food markets. regulamentos foram quase tão antiga como os mercados de alimentos. Much public regulation of markets has been Muito regulação pública dos mercados tem sido incited by scandals and crises, as we see now again with the crises and scandals on financial markets. incitada por escândalos e crises, como podemos ver agora de novo com as crises e os escândalos nos mercados financeiros. These destroyed the trust in specific products and producers as well as in earlier attempts at private Estas destruíram a confiança em determinados produtos e produtores, bem como em tentativas anteriores de privada self‐regulation of markets. auto-regulação dos mercados. History abounds with them: the Dutch dairy scandals around 1890 A história está repleta deles: os escândalos de laticínios holandesa por volta de 1890 mentioned earlier; the economic crisis of the 1930s that sparked the development of the French mencionado anteriormente, a crise econômica da década de 1930, que provocou o desenvolvimento dos franceses system of Appellation d'Origine Controlée (from 1935 on); in the 1980s the Austrian scandal of mixing sistema de Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée (de 1935 em diante), na década de 1980 o escândalo do austríaco da mistura 'anti‐freeze' in their wine (to sweeten it). "Anti-congelamento" no seu vinho (para adoçar). The recent animal epidemics (BSE, foot and mouth disease, As recentes epidemias de animais (BSE pé, e febre aftosa, pig and chicken pests) led to a tightening of veterinary inspections, animal feed standards, and got e frango pragas porco) levou a um endurecimento dos controlos veterinários, as normas de alimentação animal e tem European institutions yet more involved in food regulation, occasioning now the establishment of a instituições europeias ainda mais envolvidos na regulação de alimentos, ocasionando agora a criação de um European food regulatory agency. reguladora de alimentos agência europeia. The scandals reduced the trust of the public in private forms of regulation, which had been Os escândalos reduziu a confiança do público em formas particulares de regulação, que tinha sido usually tried earlier, in particular in the Netherlands, which has a rich history or private self‐regulation. geralmente tentou anteriores, nomeadamente na Holanda, que tem uma história rica ou privadas de auto-regulação. They made it clear that private solutions to the risks and uncertainties of the market do have Eles deixaram claro que as soluções privadas para os riscos e as incertezas do mercado têm problems. problemas. Often, a first reaction of the state to deficiencies of private risk and uncertainty reducing Muitas vezes, uma primeira reação do Estado para as deficiências de risco privado e reduzindo a incerteza institutions in food markets has been to support them. instituições nos mercados de alimentos tem sido a de apoiá-los. Furthermore, it increases public trust in Além disso, aumenta a confiança do público em commercial risk and uncertainty reducers, such as accountants or insurance companies, by holding risco comercial e redutores de incerteza, tais como contadores ou companhias de seguros, mantendo these themselves to standards; it helps self‐regulating associations solve collective action problems by estes se às normas, que ajuda a associações de auto-regulação resolver problemas de ação coletiva por recognizing them. reconhecê-los. Eventually it supplemented or replaced private by public regulations. Eventualmente, complementados ou substituídos por regulamentações públicas privadas. Where the Quando o market and commercial organizations produced a proliferation of standards which threatened to make comerciais e organizações de mercado produziu uma proliferação de normas que ameaçava fazer markets again intransparent, it set uniform and authoritative standards: for weights and measures, mercados mais opaco, estabeleceu normas uniformes e autoritária: de pesos e medidas, pricing units, vocational training or university degrees, and food quality certificates. unidades de preço, formação profissional ou universitária graus e certificados de qualidade dos alimentos. And it created its E ele criou seu own enforcement organizations, such as national, regional and/or local food inspectorates. próprias organizações policiais, como regional e / ou inspecção alimentar local, nacional. Following these earlier examples, can we now expect also a public regulation of halal‐standards? Seguindo estes exemplos anteriores, podemos agora esperar também uma regulação pública da halal-padrões? For Para the time being it does not look like it. ora, não se parece com ele. The Dutch state is declining to do so. O governo holandês está se recusando a fazê-lo. The Food Inspectorate A Inspecção Alimentar VWA says that it has no business controlling for religious food standards, and the publicly funded Food VWA diz que não tem nada para controlar os padrões alimentares religioso, eo financiamento público Alimentos Information Center ( Voedingscentrum) considers 'halal not our mission. Information Center (Voedingscentrum) considera «halal não a nossa missão. We are not there to supervise Não estamos lá para supervisionar the maintenance of religious food standards.' a manutenção de normas alimentares religiosos. Still the problem of adulteration will remain. Ainda assim o problema da adulteração permanecerá. The issue is actually an especially sensitive one A questão é especialmente sensível na verdade um um here. aqui. For the Muslim consumer audience this is not only an issue of honest trade, but also a moral Para o público consumidor muçulmano isto não é apenas uma questão do comércio honesto, mas também uma moral issue, an issue of living according to the rules of Islam, an issue of salvation and access to the problema, uma questão de viver de acordo com as regras do Islã, uma questão de salvação e de acesso à hereafter. daqui por diante. The publicity over halal adulteration and laundering is likely to only have fueled feelings of A publicidade sobre adulteração halal e lavagem é provável que só alimentaram sentimentos de uncertainty and distrust. incerteza e desconfiança. Realizing that the risk to get cheated is high they may henceforth refrain from Percebendo que o risco de ser enganado é muito elevado, pode, doravante, se abstenha de engaging in any kebab transaction at all. participar de qualquer negociação kebab em tudo. More than 200 people reacted to the documentary on the Mais de 200 pessoas reagiram ao documentário sobre o website of the broadcasting corporation, and one of the more frequent lamentations was 'what can site da empresa de radiodifusão, e um dos mais freqüentes lamentações era "o que pode we still trust if even our kebab ....'. que continuam a confiar em se mesmo kebab nosso ....'. For its part, the industry may have an incentive to clean up its reputation. Por seu lado, o setor pode ter um incentivo para limpar sua reputação. Producing Produção henceforth pure food may not be enough. doravante alimento puro pode não ser suficiente. As with any generic product, the reputation of their product Como acontece com qualquer produto genérico, a reputação do seu produto also depends on the quality of the products of their competitors, as long as consumers cannot easily depende também da qualidade dos produtos dos seus concorrentes, enquanto os consumidores não podem facilmente distinguish. distinguir. One solution may be to try to establish a 'brand' reputation for their own shops or booths. Uma solução pode ser a de tentar estabelecer "marca" uma reputação de suas próprias lojas ou estandes. At the local level that may work. No nível local, que pode funcionar. Otherwise commercial third party information and certification, and Caso contrário informações terceira parte comercial e de certificação, e perhaps self‐regulation of the industry, will be needed. talvez a auto-regulação da indústria, serão necessários. Therefore, private initiatives are to be Portanto, a iniciativa privada devem ser expected, and indeed, they are emerging. esperado, e, na verdade, eles estão surgindo. The current study will explore the private regulatory world that is emerging around halal food O presente estudo irá explorar o mundo privado de regulamentação que está a surgir em torno da comida halal for both domestic and foreign markets, and in particular the newly emerging market for private para ambos os mercados interno e externo e, em especial emergente mercado dos privados certification services. serviços de certificação. First we will delve into the specific nature of the product to be certified, halal‐ Primeiro vamos aprofundar a natureza específica do produto a ser certificado, halal-

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8 8 food, as defined by Muslim religious rules. alimentar, tal como definido pela regras religiosas muçulmanas. Then we will chart demand and supply for certification, the Então, vamos gráfico procura e oferta de certificação, o typical problems experienced by this market and its suppliers, and the solutions that have been sought problemas comuns vividos por este mercado e seus fornecedores, e as soluções que têm sido procurados to address these problems, both by the supplier‐firms as well as outsiders. para resolver estes problemas, tanto por parte do fornecedor-empresas, bem como outsiders. 2.2. 2.2. What is true Halal? Qual é Halal é verdade? Nature of the 'Product': defined by Religious Natureza do 'produto': definidas por religiosos Norms Normas 2.2.1. 2.2.1. The Background: Islam, Halal & Muslims Antecedentes: O Islã Halal, e os muçulmanos 3 3 a. a. Halal & Islam: two inseparable concepts Halal & Islã: dois conceitos inseparáveis The discussion of the concept halal with all its aspects and applications is fully embedded in the A discussão do conceito halal com todos os seus aspectos e aplicações está plenamente integrado na teachings of the Islam; it both derives its raison d'être and its rules from the religion. ensinamentos do Islã, que deriva tanto a sua raison d'être e as suas regras da religião. Consequently, Em consequência, deviations and disagreements over the concept of halal come from different interpretations from the desvios e divergências sobre o conceito de halal vêm de diferentes interpretações da main Islamic sources, although most interviewees seem to discard these differences mainly as a “lack principais fontes islâmicas, embora a maioria dos entrevistados parecem descartar essas diferenças principalmente como uma "falta of knowledge”: if “they” would truly understand the meaning and message of Allah, they would do conhecimento ": se" eles "seria realmente compreender o significado ea mensagem de Deus, haveria certainly agree upon the rules concerning halal. certamente acordar as regras relativas halal. However, these rules seem not to be as clear‐cut as No entanto, essas regras parecem não ser tão clara como many Muslims would like to see them, which is likely to reflect the same fragmentation as displayed by Muitos muçulmanos gostariam de vê-los, o que provavelmente reflete a fragmentação mesma apresentada por the Ummah, the global community which brings together all Muslims. Umma, a comunidade global que reúne todos os muçulmanos. Therefore, to place the Portanto, para colocar o discussion of the concept of halal in the right context, a short discussion of the Islam and its main discussão do conceito de halal no contexto certo, uma breve discussão sobre o Islão e os seus principais features is necessary. recursos é necessário. b. b. Islam on a shoestring Islam em um shoestring The roots of the Islam lie in the historical‐religious places of the Arabic peninsula; this is the place As raízes da mentira Islã no-religiosos locais históricos da Península Arábica, este é o lugar where Allah ‐ the Arabic word for God ‐ revealed its last message to his chosen messenger Muhammad onde Deus - a palavra árabe para Deus - revelou a sua última mensagem para o seu mensageiro escolhido Muhammad around 600. cerca de 600. This message as revealed to Muhammad is literally written down in the Qur'ān, which is Esta mensagem, conforme revelado a Maomé está literalmente escrito no Alcorão, que é the central scripture of the Muslims and considered holy, both its physical presence as its words. a escritura central dos muçulmanos e considerado sagrado, tanto a sua presença física como suas palavras. It is É considered to be the last and just revelation of God, which overrules the previous books of the considerada a última ea revelação só de Deus, que governa os livros anteriores do Christians (the Bible) and the Jews (the Torah). Os cristãos (a Bíblia) e os judeus (a Torá). Muhammad is the messenger of this revelation, and is Maomé é o mensageiro da revelação, e é seen as the perfect man and the embodiment of Islam: “he was a Qur'ān walking on earth”. visto como o homem perfeito ea personificação do Islão: "ele era um pé Alcorão sobre a terra". (Citation (Citação from Islamic scripture, in: Rippin, 2005:55) His life and actions are therefore seen as the example and da escritura islâmica, em: Rippin, 2005:55) Sua vida e as ações são, portanto, visto como o exemplo e even law; men should live and act to his example, and the scriptures in which his life is written down, mesmo a lei, os homens deveriam viver e agir em seu exemplo, e as escrituras em que sua vida está escrita, which is the body of the Sunnah, is as a consequence the second main authoritative source of the que é o corpo da Suna, é como conseqüência, a autoridade principal fonte de segunda Islam. Islam. However, these sources date from persons living in an ancient society of some 1400 years ago: No entanto, estas fontes datam de pessoas que vivem em uma sociedade antiga de cerca de 1400 anos atrás: how to bring together contemporary life and the laws of that time? forma de reunir a vida contemporânea e as leis da época? After the death of Muhammed, Após a morte de Maomé, the practice of ijtihad – personal reasoning and/or interpretation of the Qur'ān and Sunnah or the a prática de ijtihad - raciocínio pessoal e / ou interpretação do Alcorão e da Sunna ou a making of new laws – was quite common until the event described by “the closing of the door of elaboração de novas leis - era bastante comum até o evento descrito pelo "fechamento das portas de ijtihad” around the 10 ijtihad "em torno dos 10 th ª century: from then onwards, no men was allowed to make new laws, although século: a partir de então, nenhum homem foi autorizado a fazer novas leis, embora this has been under discussion in recent years. este tem sido alvo de discussão nos últimos anos. (Vikør, 1995) (Vikør, 1995) 4 4 How then to incorporate recent concepts Como, então, a incorporar conceitos recentes as Biotechnology, modern society and internet in a religion based on scriptures written down in a como a biotecnologia, a sociedade moderna e internet em uma religião baseada na Bíblia escrito em uma society which existed some 1400 years ago? sociedade que existiam cerca de 1400 anos atrás? There are two widely accepted concepts which are able to Há dois conceitos amplamente aceitos, que são capazes de build this bridge between those holy, authoritative yet ancient sources and present times: ijmā , or the construir essa ponte entre aqueles com autoridade ainda antigas fontes sagradas e os tempos atuais: ijma, ou o consensus of the Ummah and/or Islamic scholars, and qiyās , or analogy. consenso da Ummah e / ou estudiosos islâmicos, e qiyas ou analogia. This is mainly Sunni Isto é principalmente sunita jurisprudential theory, which “has its ultimate basis in the work of al‐Shafi ī”; a Muslim jurist who teoria jurisprudencial, que "tem o seu fundamento último na obra de al-Shafi I"; um jurista muçulmano que lived around 600 BC (Rippin, 2005:94). viveu por volta de 600 aC (Rippin, 2005:94). 5 5 3 3 Please note that we do not pretend to be Islamic scholars, and do not have any intention to be regarded or interpreted as Por favor note que nós não pretendemos ser estudiosos islâmicos, e não tem qualquer intenção de ser consideradas ou interpretadas como such. tal. It is largely a description of the opinions as generally found in the literature review, during fieldwork, interviews and É sobretudo uma descrição dos pareceres como geralmente encontrado na revisão de literatura, durante o trabalho de campo, entrevistas e consulting online fatwa sites. consultar sites fatwa online. 4 4 Vikør, KS The development of ijtihad and Islamic reform, 1750‐1850. Vikør, KS O desenvolvimento da reforma ijtihad e islâmico, 1750-1850. The third Nordic conference on Middle Eastern Studies: O Nordic terceira conferência sobre Estudos do Oriente Médio: Ethnic encounter and culture change. Étnicas encontro e mudança de cultura. Joensuu, Finland, 19‐22 June 1995. Joensuu, na Finlândia, 19-22 junho de 1995. 5 5 Rippin, A. Muslims, their religious beliefs and practices. Rippin, A. muçulmanos, suas crenças e práticas religiosas. Routledge, London. Routledge, em Londres. Third Edition 2005. Terceira edição 2005.

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9 9 Even though these concepts allow for a modern and flexible Islam which can adapt to all places Mesmo que estes conceitos permitem um Islão moderno e flexível que pode adaptar-se a todos os lugares and times, it is at the same time this same flexibility that creates diversity in the interpretation and e tempos, é, ao mesmo tempo essa mesma flexibilidade que cria diversidade na interpretação e design of the Sha'ria, the Islamic laws: for some, only scholars are allowed to practice ijmā and qiyās, concepção do Sha'ria, as leis islâmicas: para alguns, só os acadêmicos têm permissão para praticar ijma e qiyas, while for others the Ummah or even individual practicing Muslims are entitled to engage in these enquanto para outros a Ummah, ou mesmo individuais muçulmanos praticantes têm o direito de exercer essas practices. práticas. Moreover, many Islamic leaders (Imams) or Islamic scholars ( muftis ) can make different Além disso, muitos líderes islâmicos (imãs) ou estudiosos islâmicos (muftis) podem fazer diferentes interpretations of the same case, depending on many factors as for example ethnic identity, local interpretações do mesmo caso, dependendo de vários fatores como, por exemplo, a identidade étnica, local practices/tradition, generation or Islamic current. práticas / tradição, geração ou islâmico atual. This often results in different advises or answers (the Isto muitas vezes resulta em diferentes aconselha ou respostas (o so called fatwa's) from different religious leaders or scholars: these fatwa's are certainly no Islamic assim chamado fatwa's) de diferentes líderes religiosos ou acadêmicos: estes é fatwa certamente não são islâmicos law, but are opinions of Islamic scholars that are merely advice, although Muslims often consider these lei, mas são as opiniões dos estudiosos islâmicos que são apenas conselhos, embora muitas vezes os muçulmanos consideram essas fatwa's as personal laws. fatwa como leis pessoais. These differences in Islamic thought might seem unacceptable from a Estas diferenças de pensamento islâmico pode parecer inaceitável de um “Western” point of view for law, but are generally accepted among the most prominent Islamic Ocidental "ponto" de vista do direito, mas são geralmente aceito entre os mais proeminentes islâmica scholars, although within certain boundaries. estudiosos, embora dentro de certos limites. On 'Islamonline', a very popular site on which Islamic 'On' Islamonline, um popular site sobre a qual islâmica scholars can be consulted (give fatwa's), the issue is addressed by Dr. Sano Koutoub Moustapha, acadêmicos podem ser consultados (dar fatwa), a questão é abordada pelo Dr. Sano Koutoub Moustapha, professor of fiqh at the international university of Malaysia, in a fatwa issued on August 26, 2008, in professor de fiqh na Universidade Internacional da Malásia, em uma fatwa emitida em 26 de agosto de 2008, em which is stated: “If the issue is controversial among Muslim jurists and the contradicting opinions are o que está escrito: "Se o assunto é controverso entre os juristas muçulmanos e os pareceres são contraditórios issued by qualified and sincere muftis, then one can follow the opinion that he or she is most emitidos por e sincero muftis qualificada, então pode-se seguir a opinião que ele ou ela é mais comfortable with” (Mufti Sano Koutoub Moustapha, fatwa of 26‐08‐2008). confortável "(mufti Sano Koutoub Moustapha," fatwa "de 26-08-2008). 6 6 So despite the often found contradicting rulings, ijmā and qiyās remain both cornerstones of Então, apesar da freqüência encontrada decisões contraditórias, ijma e qiyas continuam a ser a pedra angular da Islamic Shariah. Sharia islâmica. However, it should be kept in mind that these sources of Islamic law are the secondary Entretanto, deve-se ter em mente que estas fontes da lei islâmica são as secundárias sources after the primary sources: firstly, the holy scripture the Qur'an, and secondly the Sunna of fontes após a fontes primárias: em primeiro lugar, a escritura sagrada do Alcorão, e segundo a Sunna do Muhammad. Muhammad. 2.2.2. 2.2.2. Unity or Heterogeneity? Unidade ou Heterogeneidade? As is described in the previous section, there are many contradictory opinions present within the Como é descrito na seção anterior, há muitas opiniões contraditórias presentes na Ummah: it is certainly not a united, coherent community. Ummah: ele certamente não é uma comunidade unida coerente. The absence of a central (living) source of A ausência de uma fonte (de vida) central de authority, as for example the Pope in Catholicism, also reflects this fragmentation. autoridade, como por exemplo o Papa no catolicismo, também reflete essa fragmentação. Different schools Diferentes escolas within the Islam, (although only between the Shia an Sunni Islam are found large differences, within dentro do Islã, (embora apenas um entre os muçulmanos xiitas sunitas são encontradas grandes diferenças, no prazo the four main current of the Sunni there exists a large consensus on most topics) and the dispersion of as principais correntes quatro dos sunitas existe um amplo consenso sobre a maioria dos temas) e da dispersão de different Muslim communities over the globe with different ethnic backgrounds and histories enlarge Comunidades muçulmanas diferentes partes do globo com diferentes origens étnicas e histórias ampliar the existing differences within the Ummah, although the upcoming popularity of the internet might as diferenças existentes dentro do Ummah, embora a popularidade próxima da internet pode bring different opinions closer together. trazer diferentes opiniões mais próximas. a. a. Halal – Harām: and something in between? Halal - haram, e algo entre os dois? Most Muslims refer in the discussion of what is allowed and not allowed (or for that matter, good or A maioria dos muçulmanos referem-se a discussão do que é permitido e não permitido (ou para essa matéria, bem ou bad) to the concepts of halal , which means permitted, and the opposite term of harām ; forbidden. ruim) para os conceitos de halal, que significa permitido, eo termo oposto de haram, proibido. This dichotomy of opposites is used by most Muslims in deciding whether something is according to Essa dicotomia de opostos é usado pela maioria dos muçulmanos para decidir se algo está de acordo com Islam or not, and therefore is used in many aspects of life. Islão ou não, e, portanto, é utilizado em muitos aspectos da vida. Or as Rippin states, it “provides an element Ou, como afirma Rippin, ele "prevê um elemento of the foundation for Islamic ethics.” (Rippin, 2005:30) This is also reflected in daily practice of Muslims da fundação para a ética islâmica ". (Rippin, 2005:30) Isto também se reflecte na prática diária dos muçulmanos as discussed by de Koning (2008), he suggests that this somewhat black‐and‐white thinking might have como discutido por de Koning (2008), ele sugere que esta em preto-e-branco pode ter pensando um pouco to do with “the desire for certainty and the ability to give clear‐cut answers”. a ver com "o desejo de segurança ea capacidade de dar respostas claras". (de Koning, 2008:228) As (De Koning, 2008:228) Como also de Koning notices, this is quite peculiar since this dichotomy does not exist in official Islamic também de Koning avisos, isso é muito peculiar uma vez que esta dicotomia não existe no islâmica oficial jurisprudence, where a more refined system of classification is used. jurisprudência, em que um refinado sistema de classificação é mais utilizada. This system (called al‐ahkām al‐ Este sistema (chamado al-Ahkam al- khamsa ) classifies each act into one of the five categories: obligatory (wajib), recommended (mandub), Khamsa) classifica cada ato em uma das cinco categorias: obrigatórios (wajib), recomendou mandub (), permissible (mubah or halal), disapproved (makruh), or forbidden (haram). admissível (mubah ou halal), reprovado (Makruh) ou proibidos (haram). Speaking broadly, a Muslim Falando amplamente, um muçulmano has to adhere to the rules relating to the acts that are classified as obligatory or forbidden since tem que respeitar as regras relativas aos actos que são classificadas como obrigatórias ou proibidas desde ignoring these will bring punishment in afterlife, while the doubtful cases of the recommended and ignorando esses trará punição em vida após a morte, enquanto os casos duvidosos da recomendada e disapproved categories will bring reward for those who adhere to them, but no consequences for categorias reprovado trará recompensa para aqueles que aderem a elas, mas sem consequências para 6 6 Sano Koutoub Moustapha, Fatwa: Sano Moustapha Koutoub, Fatwa: “Different Fatwa's: which one should I follow?”, dated August 26, 2008. "Fatwa diferente: que eu devo seguir?", Datado de 26 de agosto de 2008. Retrieved on February 6, 2010, on: Página visitada em 6 de fevereiro de 2010, em: http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?pagename=IslamOnline-English- http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?pagename=IslamOnline-English- Ask_Scholar/FatwaE/FatwaEAskTheScholar&cid=1219723011613 For more information on Dr. Sano, see his Ask_Scholar / FatwaE / FatwaEAskTheScholar & cid = 1219723011613 Para mais informações sobre o Dr. Sano, consulte o seu website on http://www.drsano.net/modules.php?dat=2&&version=1 . site sobre http://www.drsano.net/modules.php?dat=2&&version=1.

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10 10 those who do not. aqueles que não. All the other acts, which are regarded as neutral, are classified as permissible. Todos os outros atos, que são considerados como neutros, são classificados como admissíveis. (Rippin, 2005:97) However, most Muslims are only vaguely aware of this categorization, and is indeed (Rippin, 2005:97) No entanto, a maioria dos muçulmanos são apenas vagamente ciente desta categorização, e é de facto more often used by the Islamic scholars than in daily practice. mais frequentemente utilizados pelos estudiosos islâmicos do que na prática diária. How reflects this theoretical notion of halal and haram the classification of products as will be Como reflexo dessa noção teórica de halal e haram a classificação dos produtos como será discussed in this paper? discutidos neste papel? If asked, most non‐Islamic, Dutch people think of halal as “food that contains Se solicitado, a maioria dos não-islâmicos, os holandeses pensar halal como "alimento que contenha no pork”. sem carne de porco ". (interview Mekkafoods February 22, 2010) However, this notion of halal fails to recognize (Entrevista Mekkafoods 22 de fevereiro, 2010) No entanto, essa noção de halal não reconhece the wholeness of the term halal: it is not only a product, but a way of life. a totalidade do halal termo: não é apenas um produto, mas um modo de vida. It encompasses everything of Engloba tudo o good quality, from speaking with the right (halal) words, to halal meat to the halal way of life: the boa qualidade, de falar com a direita (halal) palavras, a carne halal à forma halal da vida: o Islamic way of life. modo de vida islâmico. Muslims discuss their Islamic identity and behavior by using the term, and also to Muçulmanos discutir a sua identidade islâmica e comportamento usando o termo, e também para consult Islamic authorities when confronted with doubt. consultar as autoridades islâmicas, quando confrontado com a dúvida. Additionally, notions as halal make‐up, halal Além disso, noções como halal make-up, halal banking and halal behavior are commonly used: clearly, the concept of halal encompasses far more bancário e comportamento halal são comumente usados: claramente, o conceito de halal abrange muito mais than solely the notion of “food without pork”: it is the Islamic way of life. do que apenas a noção de "alimentos sem carne de porco": é o modo de vida islâmico. It should be clear however, that this notion of halal and haram is not a clear‐cut static concept, Deve ficar claro no entanto, que essa noção de halal e haram não é um corte estático conceito claro, but depends very much again on the personal/cultural/ethnic interpretation as discussed in the second mas depende muito de novo sobre o pessoal / étnica / cultural interpretação conforme discutido no segundo and third section, and can change over time and space, and depending on which scholar you consult. ea terceira seção, e pode mudar ao longo do tempo e do espaço, e dependendo do que você consulte estudioso. 2.3. 2.3. Halal Product Definitions Definições Halal produto 2.3.1. 2.3.1. General Halal Food Standards: the Devil is in the Detail Geral Halal Food Standards: o diabo está nos detalhes 7 7 How does everything that has been discussed in the previous sections – currents within Islam, no Como é que tudo o que foi discutido nas seções anteriores - correntes dentro do Islã, não central authority, flexible interpretation of Islamic laws and concepts as ijmā, qiyās and the shaded autoridade central, interpretação flexível das leis islâmicas e conceitos como ijma, qiyas eo sombreado area between halal and Haram – área entre e Haram halal - influence the discussion of halal food? influenciar a discussão sobre alimentos halal? In short, the Islamic way of life Em resumo, o modo de vida islâmico should be halal, and an important part of life – food consumption – should be halal too and is thus very deve ser halal, e uma parte importante da vida - o consumo de alimentos - deverá ser halal e também é assim muito much embedded in the whole discussion of what Islam is and what being a Muslim entails. muito incorporado em toda a discussão de que o Islã é eo que implica ser um muçulmano. Consequently, the definition of a halal product is very much related to the definition of one's Muslim Por conseguinte, a definição de um produto halal está muito relacionado com a definição de uma muçulmana identity and the related interpretation of Allah's commands, as for example the interpretation of the identidade e da interpretação de comandos relacionados com Deus, como por exemplo a interpretação dos commands: for example a more strict or flexible way of interpreting the rules, depends on the Islamic comandos: por exemplo, uma rigorosa ou flexível forma mais de interpretação das regras, depende da islâmica current or ethnic background that defines a person. corrente ou origem étnica que define uma pessoa. Hence, there seems not to be such a thing as a general accepted halal food standard; Assim, não parece ser uma coisa como um padrão aceito em geral comida halal; differences in what is accepted as being “halal” do exist. diferenças no que é aceito como sendo "halal" não existem. Nevertheless, it is clear that a Muslim should No entanto, é evidente que um muçulmano deve eat halal food, as is stated in the Qu'ran: “O people! comer comida halal, como é afirmado no Alcorão: "Ó povo! Eat of what is in the earth, halal and Pure, and do Coma o que há na terra halal, e pura, e não not follow the footsteps of Satan. não seguir as pegadas de Satanás. Indeed, for you he is an open enemy” (Qu'ran, Surah al‐Baqarah, Na verdade, para você ele é um inimigo declarado "(Alcorão, Surata Al-Baqarah, 168). 168). Additionally, a general consensus of what is accepted to be halal among scholars and Muslims Além disso, um consenso geral de que é aceito para ser halal entre os estudiosos e os muçulmanos in general is also certainly in existence: everything that is literally in the Qur'an, is without doubt a em geral, é certamente também na existência: tudo o que é, literalmente, no Alcorão, é sem dúvida um general ruling for what is seen as halal. decisão geral de que é visto como halal. The only difficulty concerning these verses is how to interpret A única dificuldade relativa destes versos é como interpretar them: differences in opinions come from differences interpreting the Qur'an, not from accepting or eles: as diferenças de opiniões vêm de diferenças de interpretação do Alcorão, e não de aceitar ou not accepting what is written down. não aceitar o que está escrito. The Qur'an is holy, not only what is in there, but also its physical O Alcorão é sagrado, não só o que está lá dentro, mas também o seu físico presence, and everything that is in there, is as a result holy too: scholars will never doubt that. presença, e tudo o que está lá, é como um resultado santo também: estudiosos jamais duvidar disso. So Assim verses explicitly discussing certain foods form the core of the halal prescriptions, which can be versículos explicitamente discutir certos alimentos formam o núcleo das prescrições halal, que pode ser summarized as such: resumidas como: General halal food rules: Geral alimentos halal regras: ‐ - the animal is from an allowed species (as literally defined in the Qu'ran, excludes for example o animal é de uma espécie autorizados (literalmente como definidos no Alcorão, exclui, por exemplo pork and most meat‐eating animals and insects) carne suína e mais de comer carne de animais e insetos) ‐ - all parts of an animal that is not halal, is forbidden. todas as partes de um animal que não é halal, é proibido. ‐ - eating blood is not allowed comer sangue não é permitida ‐ - so is alcohol assim é o álcool 7 7 An comprehensive overview of the Halal (and Kosher) slaughter rules can be found in Regenstein, JM, Uma visão global da (e Kosher) O abate Halal regras podem ser encontradas no Regenstein, JM, MMChaudry, and CE Regenstein (2003) 'The Kosher and Halal Food Laws', in Comprehensive Reviews in Food MMChaudry e Regenstein CE (2003) "A Kosher e Halal Leis Alimentos", em análises abrangentes em Alimentos Science and Food Safety , Vol. Ciência e Segurança Alimentar, vol. 2, pp. 111‐127. 2, pp 111-127.

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11 11 Slaughtering‐rules: Abate de regras: ‐ - the slaughtering must be done by a Muslim, Christian or Jew o abate deve ser feito por um, muçulmano cristão ou judeu ‐ - the animal should be slaughtered while blessing the animal by verbally invoking the name of o animal deve ser abatido enquanto abençoava o animal pela verbalmente invocando o nome de Allah/God (regularly, Bismillah Allahu Akbar) Alá / Deus (regularmente, Bismillah Allahu Akbar) ‐ - the slaughtering must be done with a sharp knife or other tool, killing the animal by cutting the o abate deve ser feito com uma faca ou outra ferramenta, matando o animal, cortando o animal in such a way that it dies as quickly as possible animal de tal forma que ela morre mais depressa possível ‐ - the animal should be alive when slaughtered o animal deve estar vivo quando abatidos a. a. Additional rules (again, very roughly stated) Regras adicionais (mais uma vez, muito mais ou menos declarado) In addition to these rules, many more are considered to be essential to define it as being halal, Além dessas regras, muitas mais são consideradas essenciais para defini-lo como sendo halal, examples are for example that the animal and / or slaughtering person should face Mecca when exemplos são, por exemplo, que o animal e / ou pessoa de abate devem enfrentar Meca, quando slaughtered, that the animal should not see the knife before it gets slaughtered, that the animal does abatidos, que o animal não deve ver a faca antes de ficar abatido, que o animal não not witness other animals being slaughtered, etc. The latter are further elaborations of animal‐friendly não testemunhar outros animais serem abatidos, etc Estes são elaborações ainda mais de amigos dos animais slaughtering, which is inherent to halal food. abate, que é inerente aos alimentos halal. b. b. Major points of controversy over halal Os principais pontos de controvérsia sobre halal The above rules are the core of what is considered halal: the majority of mainstream Islamic scholars As regras acima são a essência do que é considerada halal: a maioria dos principais estudiosos islâmicos agree upon these rules. acordar sobre essas regras. However, there are some major items on which scholars do not always agree, No entanto, existem alguns itens importantes de que os estudiosos não concordam sempre, or over which many Muslims remain confused. ou sobre a qual muitos muçulmanos continuam confusos. These points in the “grey area” between halal and Estes pontos na "zona cinzenta" entre halal e haram. haram. (For a more elaborate discussion, see the extensive version of this paper for the (Para uma discussão mais elaborada, consulte a versão extensa deste trabalho para a Wetenschappelijke Raad voor Regeringsbeleid in the Netherlands or the book of Riaz & Chaudry. Wetenschappelijke Regeringsbeleid Raad voor nos Países Baixos ou o livro de Riaz e Chaudry. ) ) ‐ - Machine Slaughtering Máquina de abate ‐ - Food from “the People of the Book” Comida do "Povo do Livro" ‐ - Evoking the Name of God during slaughter Evocar o nome de Deus durante o abate ‐ - When no other food is available: eat harām food? Quando nenhum outro alimento disponível: comida Haram comer? ‐ - Facing Mecca Virados para Meca ‐ - Stunning before slaughtering O atordoamento antes do abate ‐ - Transporting halal together with harām food Transportar, juntamente com alimentos halal Haram ‐ - Guarantee for halal status Garantia para o estado halal 2.3.2. 2.3.2. Consequences for Different Types of Products and Production and Distribution Processes Consequências para diferentes tipos de produtos e Processos de Produção e Distribuição These religious norms have to be operationalized by producers, traders, consumers as well as by Estas normas religiosas têm de ser operacionalizado pelos produtores, comerciantes, consumidores, bem como por possible certifiers in order to determine for concrete products and services whether they are halal or certificadores possível, a fim de determinar de produtos e serviços concretos se são halal ou not. não. Halal standards refer both to the composition of products and to the manner or process in which Halal normas referem-se tanto à composição dos produtos e à forma ou processo em que they have been prepared and distributed. foram elaborados e distribuídos. a. a. Product Standards Produto Normas This is still easiest as composition standards can be tested at the point of consumption for forbidden Este é ainda mais fácil como as normas de composição pode ser testado no ponto de consumo para o proibido ingredients, such as pork or alcohol. ingredientes, como carne de porco ou de álcool. Certainly with modern laboratory methods it is possible to detect Certamente com métodos laboratoriais modernos, é possível detectar even the tiniest trace of pork or other haram animals in meat that is sold as halal. mesmo o mais ínfimo traço de carne de porco ou de outros animais haram na carne que é vendida como halal. There have been Temos até ao momento several cases where Saudi‐Arabia found such tiny traces, which made it destroy the whole shipment of vários casos em que a Arábia Saudita descobriu tais vestígios minúsculos, que fez destruir toda a transferência de which this piece was a part. que esta peça foi uma parte. As such, Muslim's interest in food adulteration is different from classical Como tal, o interesse muçulmano na adulteração de alimentos é diferente da clássica cases such as using cheaper and less quality ingredients, since the concern is less about the quality or casos como o uso de ingredientes de qualidade inferior e mais barato, uma vez que a preocupação não é tanto sobre a qualidade ou monetary value for which one is cheated, but the religious values that are violated. valor monetário para os quais um é enganado, mas os valores religiosos que são violados. b. b. Composed Foods Composto Foods Product standards become more of a problem with the zillion composed and ready‐made food Os padrões de produção tornam-se mais de um problema com o infinito e ready-made de alimentos compostos products turned out by the modern mass food industry. produtos despejou a massa para a indústria alimentar moderna. The large majority of products displayed on A grande maioria dos produtos exibidos supermarket shelves are such composed products. prateleiras dos supermercados são tais produtos compostos. New additives, plastics, special casings and gases Novos aditivos, plásticos, embalagens especiais e gases preserve food longer, and more efficient logistics distribute it faster from a few centralized locations of conservar os alimentos por mais tempo e uma logística mais eficiente distribuí-lo rapidamente em um dos poucos locais centralizados

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12 12 production. de produção. Ingredients in these composed foods can come from many sources, even unlikely ones. Ingredientes nestes alimentos compostos podem vir de várias fontes, até mesmo improvável. Spices and additives, like thickeners, colorants or preservatives, could also come either directly or Condimentos e aditivos, como espessantes, corantes ou conservantes, também pode vir diretamente ou indirectly from haram sources: some red colorants are made from lice, and gelatin in candy or indiretamente a partir de fontes haram: alguns corantes vermelhos são feitos de piolhos, e gelatina em doces ou puddings could be made from pork bones. pudins podem ser feitos a partir de ossos de porco. Dairy products such as cheese would be haram if the milk is Os produtos lácteos como o queijo seria ilícito se o leite é curdled by a rennet derived from pig stomachs. coalhados por um coalho derivados de estômagos de suínos. This poses Muslims with many doubts for their dairy Isto coloca os muçulmanos com muitas dúvidas para os seus produtos lácteos consumption, certainly for some immigrants who are not used to such complex foods. consumo, certamente para alguns imigrantes que não estão acostumados a tais alimentos complexos. c. c. Non‐Food Products -Produtos não alimentares Although halal rules are best known as food standards, they also may affect non‐food products. Apesar de as regras halal são mais conhecidas como normas alimentares, mas também pode afetar os produtos não alimentícios. Important for Muslims are in particular products that may touch the body in other ways than as food, Importante para os muçulmanos estão em determinados produtos, que podem tocar o corpo de outras maneiras e não como alimento, such as pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, shampoos, or even clothes. tais como fármacos, cosméticos, xampus, ou até mesmo roupas. All these are ever so many composed Todos estes são sempre tantas composto products which could contain traces of haram animals: gelatin in pills, starch and synthetic colorants in produtos que poderiam conter vestígios de animais haram: gelatina em pílulas, amido e corantes sintéticos em clothes. roupas. Halal rules furthermore can also apply to services, like halal banking, that is, banking according regras Halal, além disso, também pode aplicar aos serviços, como bancos halal, ou seja, de acordo com bancário to the Sharia rule that it is haram to charge or may interest. à regra de Sharia que é haram para carregar ou interesse pode. Creative banks have in the meantime Creative bancos têm, entretanto, found ways to get around this condition. formas encontradas para contornar esta condição. In the case of a halal‐mortgage, the trick is that the bank buys No caso de uma hipoteca-halal, o truque é que o banco compra the house, and sells it for a higher price back to the owner, the difference being the profit the bank da casa, e vende-lo por um preço mais elevado de volta para o proprietário, a diferença sendo o lucro do banco expects to make. espera fazer. In that way the buyer pays back the loan in the form of a higher price, but officially Desta forma, o comprador paga o empréstimo sob a forma de um preço mais elevado, mas oficialmente without interest. sem juros. New halal‐products keep appearing, eg recently nursing homes and care centers for Novos produtos halal continuam aparecendo, por exemplo, recentemente, lares e centros de saúde para elderly Muslims, complete with halal food provision (Vk. 25‐05‐2009 'Zorg: nu ook van islamitische Muçulmanos idosa, com fornecimento de alimentos halal (Vk. 25-05-2009 »Zorg: nu islamitische van ook snit'). SNIT). And what to think of the old‐fashioned piggy bank ('spaarvarken') for kids? E o que acha da moda-mealheiro de idade ('spaarvarken') para as crianças? That too would be Isso também seria haram for Muslim children. haram para crianças muçulmanas. For the bank Fortis it was a reason to stop with its 7 year program to give Para o banco Fortis foi uma razão para parar com o seu programa de 7 anos para dar children a piggy bank as present. crianças mealheiro um como presente. It got immediately greeted with howls of derision as well as 'creative' Ficou imediatamente saudado com gritos de escárnio, bem como "criativa" suggestions to replace the symbol of luck and of saving with a goat or camel bank. sugestões para substituir o símbolo de sorte e de poupança com uma cabra ou um banco de camelo. d. d. Process Standards Processo de Normalização Particularly important for Muslims are process standards. Particularmente importante para os muçulmanos, são normas de processo. This holds for the whole chain of production Isso vale para toda a cadeia de produção and distribution, from farm to fork, so to speak. e distribuição, do campo à mesa, por assim dizer. This, halal‐standards have in common with the Isto, halal, as normas têm em comum com o standards for organic food or for fair trade. normas para alimentos orgânicos ou de comércio justo. It starts with the farm where the animals have been bred. Ele começa com a fazenda onde os animais foram criados. Animal welfare is already there a concern. Bem-estar animal já existe uma preocupação. Did the animals have a 'humane' life? Será que os animais têm uma crueldade "vida"? How were they Como eles foram treated by the farmer? tratados pelo agricultor? What food did they eat? Que comida que eles comem? Were they transported decently from farm to Eles eram transportados decentemente do campo para a slaughtering house, eg not shoveled by a tractor into the slaughtering house, because their legs were casa de abate, por exemplo, não shoveled por um trator para a casa de abate, porque suas pernas foram too weak to stand on (a recent scandal in the Dutch food industry)? demasiado fraco para ficar (um escândalo recente da indústria holandesa de alimentos)? Then again a process, the actual Então, novamente um processo, o real slaughtering, is a concern, probably the most important concern in halal: the animal should not arrive abate, é uma preocupação, provavelmente, a preocupação mais importante no halal: o animal não deve chegar dead at the slaughterhouse, it should be slaughtered alive; by a Muslim or at least 'someone from the morto no matadouro, que devem ser abatidos vivos, por um muçulmano, ou pelo menos alguém da book', with a special quick method, while mumbling 'bismillah Allahu akbar', etc. livro ", com um rápido método especial, murmurando" Bismillah Allahu akbar ', etc Subsequently, the further transport and distribution along the supply chain is an issue for Posteriormente, o posterior transporte e distribuição ao longo da cadeia de abastecimento é uma questão para regulation as all the rules have to be observed throughout the process. regulamento, como todas as regras devem ser observadas ao longo do processo. At no point in time the food Em nenhum momento, o alimento should come in contact with haram objects, ie lamb, sheep or beef should not touch pork, pig hairs or deve entrar em contato com objetos haram, ou seja, cordeiro, carneiro ou vaca não deve tocar porco, porco ou os cabelos alcohol. álcool. There should be no possibility of cross‐infection. Não deve haver nenhuma possibilidade de infecção cruzada. Being strict on these process standards Ser rigoroso sobre esses padrões de processo would be the Muslim variation of the 'precautionary principle': keeping everything separate, just to be a variação seria muçulmano do princípio da precaução: manter tudo em separado, apenas para ser sure that cross contamination is in no way possible. certeza de que a contaminação cruzada é de nenhuma maneira possível. Having a separate system for processing and handling of halal products can be very expensive. Ter um sistema separado para processamento e manuseamento de produtos halal pode ser muito caro. Such separation can actually only be afforded by companies which work only with halal products, Essa separação pode realmente ser oferecidas por empresas que trabalham somente com produtos halal, varying from the local neighborhood butcher to a larger pure halal producer; or it must be a very large variando entre o açougueiro da vizinhança local para uma maior produtor halal pura, ou ele deve ser um grande company which can afford two separate slaughtering and processing lines, such as Mekkafoods in empresa que pode ter duas linhas de abate e processamento em separado, como em Mekkafoods Venlo. Venlo. However, it also means that with halal products way more can be saved ‐ and hence earned ‐ by No entanto, isso também significa que com a forma de produtos halal mais pode ser salvo - e, portanto, ganhou - por being not so strict about maintaining separate chains for production, storage, transport, distribution, não sendo tão rigoroso com a manutenção de cadeias separadas para a produção, armazenamento, transporte, distribuição, ie by making more commercially efficient use of one's installations, rather than be mixing some ou seja, tornando comercialmente mais eficientes de uso de uma de instalações, ao invés de ser uma mistura cheaper raw materials into the product and pretending it to be of purer composition than it really is, as matérias-primas mais baratas para o produto e fingindo que ele seja de composição mais pura do que ela realmente é, como with classical adulteration. com adulteração clássica. Halal fraud could hence also mean not being very particular about process standards. fraude Halal pode, portanto, também significa não ser muito específico sobre as normas de processo. That is Isso é probably also the most frequent kind of fraud, as it is the easiest. provavelmente, também mais freqüente o tipo de fraude, como é mais fácil. What makes process standards differ O que torna o processo de padrões diferentes

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13 13 from product standards is that they are much more difficult to enforce. de normas de produto é que eles são muito mais difíceis de aplicar. Product standards can be Os padrões de produção pode ser enforced at the final place of consumption: by analyzing the composition of the product. executada no local de consumo final: através da análise da composição do produto. But how the Mas como o product has been handled during the whole supply chain can impossibly be determined at the location produto foi realizada durante toda a cadeia pode ser impossível determinar a localização of final consumption. de consumo final. It requires a much greater leap of trust. Ela exige um salto maior muita confiança. (Hence such standards have also been (Tais normas Daí também foram called 'credence quality attributes' (Grunert 2005, Darby and Karni 1973).) Or very detailed and strict chamado "crédito atributos de qualidade" (Grunert 2005, Darby e Karni, 1973).) ou muito detalhada e rigorosa supervision of all the processes the product has passed through, something most certifiers cannot supervisão de todos os processos o produto passou por, certificadoras mais uma coisa não pode afford. pagar. It would also make the products much more, expensive, that is, out of reach of the average Além disso, tornaria os produtos muito mais caros, isto é, fora do alcance da média Muslim consumer. consumidor muçulmano. This already points out the major issue certifiers face: the delicate trade‐off Isso já aponta o grande problema certificadoras rosto: o delicado trade-off between a thorough but expensive halal‐process control or a less thorough but far cheaper control. entre um processo de controle-halal caro, mas profundo ou uma profunda, mas muito mais barato do menor controle. 2.3.3. 2.3.3. 100% Halal? 100% Halal? Is that Possible? Isso é possível? The complexity of the halal‐rules and the diversity in opinions over how these rules should be A complexidade do halal-regras e à diversidade de opiniões sobre a forma como estas regras devem ser operationalized and how strict they ought to be enforced, in particular the process standards, has led operacionalizado e como rigorosa que deveriam ser aplicadas, em particular as normas do processo, levou to a discussion among Muslims whether advertisement claims of '100% halal' can be made. a uma discussão entre os muçulmanos se as reivindicações de anúncio de halal% '100 'podem ser feitas. Some Alguns argue that a product can be either halal or not, and that 100% suggests that also 99% or 98% halal argumentam que um produto pode ser halal ou não, e que 100% indica que 99% ou 98% halal também would be a possibility. seria uma possibilidade. Others argue that in our modern day and age with its very different production Outros argumentam que, em nossa era moderna com a sua produção muito diferentes and distribution technologies a little bit more or less strictness in following the rules must be possible. e tecnologias de distribuição de pouco mais ou pouco menos um rigor no cumprimento das regras deve ser possível. According to mr. De acordo com o sr. Wahid Ramdjan from Halal International Control (HIC) it is practically impossible in Wahid Ramdjan de Halal Internacional de Controlo (HIC) é praticamente impossível the mass production/slaughtering of chickens to slaughter them unstunned. a produção em massa / abate de frangos para abate-los unstunned. Therefore Muslims have Portanto, os muçulmanos têm to be pragmatic and adjust the interpretation of the rules to the times and the current technologies. de ser pragmáticos e ajustar a interpretação das regras para os tempos e as tecnologias atuais. By contrast, ms. Em contrapartida, ms. Yasmina Ben‐Koubia of the more strict Halal Feed and Food (HVV) is of the opinion Yasmina Ben-Koubia da estrita Halal mais Rações e Alimentos (hvv) é de opinião that stunned slaughtering is merely tolerated. que abate atordoado é apenas tolerada. But 'real (100%??) halal' meat must come from animals Mas a 'real (100%?) Halal' da carne deve provir de animais that have not been stunned but killed alive. que não tenham sido atordoados, mas mortos vivos. 2.4. 2.4. The Market for Halal Products O mercado de produtos Halal The halal food market is big business: Islam is the fastest growing religion on earth, the average O mercado dos alimentos halal é um grande negócio: o Islão é a religião que mais cresce no mundo, a média Muslim consumer spends large parts of the consumption bundle on halal meat, average Muslim consumidor muçulmano passa grande parte da cesta de consumo da carne halal, muçulmano médio consumption is rising, national grocery stores and multinationals have recognized the enormous o consumo está crescendo, os supermercados nacionais e multinacionais têm reconhecido o enorme potential of the worldwide halal market and governments of countries with large or total Muslim potencial do halal mercado mundial e os governos dos países com ou total muçulmana populations are working on becoming the main player in this booming international halal market. populações estão trabalhando para se tornar o principal player nesse mercado em franca expansão internacional halal. A A new reader diving into the world of halal, will repeatedly run into powerful terms as “the booming mergulho novo leitor no mundo do halal, repetidamente executar poderosos em termos como "a expansão halal market”, “huge potential”, “unexploited goldmine”, or halal being “an engine of growth and mercado halal "," enorme potencial "," explorar mina de ouro ", ou halal sendo um" motor de crescimento e opportunity”. oportunidade ". One of the few “western” scholars studying halal, Joe Regenstein of Cornell University, Um dos poucos "ocidental" estudiosos da halal, Joe Regenstein da Universidade de Cornell, even stated that "food companies are not going to be global unless they're halal" (Power & Gatsiounis, afirma mesmo que "as empresas de alimentos não vão ser global a menos que estejam halal" (Power & Gatsiounis, 2007). , 2007). Nevertheless, food companies seem to remain hesitant in entering this promising market; few No entanto, as empresas de alimentos parecem continuam hesitantes em entrar neste mercado promissor, mas poucos have a halal‐line up and running, and even less are generating large profits from the market: it has ter uma linha halal instalado e funcionando, e muito menos estão gerando grandes lucros do mercado: tem been estimated that only 10% of the potential halal market has been entered by the major companies. Foi estimado que apenas 10% do potencial de mercado halal foi introduzido pelas grandes empresas. (KasehDia report WHF, 2009) Apparently, there seems to be some sort of hindrance which prevents (Relatório KasehDia WHF, 2009) Aparentemente, parece haver algum tipo de obstáculo que impede companies from entering this global “gold mine”. empresas de entrar neste "mundial de ouro" de minas. The halal market is largely a local “uncle‐and‐aunty” O mercado halal é um grande local "tio e tia" market, depending on personal and local relationships and trust and therefore almost impossible to mercado, dependendo do local e as relações pessoais e de confiança e, portanto, quase impossível enter for large, western and anonymous multinationals. inscrever, oeste e anônimo grandes multinacionais. This is where the halal certification comes into Este é o lugar onde a certificação halal entra em play; but a more thorough discussion of the market for halal products is necessary first. jogar, mas uma discussão mais aprofundada do mercado de produtos Halal é necessário em primeiro lugar. 2.4.1 Consumer Diversity 2.4.1 Diversidade dos Consumidores An article in The Economist captured the nature of the halal market very well: “the halal market may Um artigo no The Economist capturados da natureza do mercado halal muito bem: "o mercado halal pode be buoyant, but the waters are choppy” (The Economist, September 19, 2009). ser dinâmico, mas as águas estão agitadas "(The Economist, 19 de setembro de 2009). 8 8 These choppy waters Estas águas agitadas are caused by many things, but one of the main causes is probably the diversity of the halal consumer. são causados ​​por muitas coisas, mas uma das principais causas é, provavelmente, a diversidade dos consumidores halal. 8 8 The Economist (2009) Cut‐throat competition. Economist, 00130613, 9/19/2009, Vol. The Economist (2009)-garganta concorrência Corte. Economist, 00130613, 2009/09/19, vol. 392, Issue 8649 392, Edição 8649

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14 14 There is no such thing as “The” halal consumer; As regards their consciousness about consumption, Não existe tal coisa como "O" consumidor halal, que diz respeito a sua consciência sobre o consumo, four different types can be distinguished: the “natural” halal consumers in Muslim countries, who are quatro tipos diferentes podem ser distinguidos: o "natural" halal consumidores em países muçulmanos, que são barely aware of the existence of non‐halal food; the “conscious” halal consumer in non‐Muslim pouco conhecimento da existência de alimentos não-halal, a consciência "halal consumidor" em não-muçulmano countries who is more aware of its consumption as he or she knows that most of the food in the países que está mais consciente de seu consumo como ele ou ela sabe que a maioria dos alimentos na country is haram; the “western” halal consumer who focuses on healthy, high quality or pork‐free food país é haram, o western "halal consumidor" que se concentra em alta, a qualidade saudável ou livre de alimentos de carne de porco and therefore chooses halal and who does not necessarily have to be a Muslim; and lastly, the e, portanto, escolhe halal e que não têm necessariamente de ser um muçulmano, e por último, o “ignorant” halal consumer, who consumes halal food without knowing it as the industry in the west ignorante "halal consumidor", que consome alimentos halal sem saber como a indústria, a oeste often completely switches to halal food production to achieve economies of scale. muitas vezes completamente muda para a produção de alimentos halal para alcançar economias de escala. These groups are Estes grupos são certainly not clear‐cut, as the boundaries are blurry and some groups can exists within other groups. certamente não muito clara, como as fronteiras são borradas e alguns grupos podem existir em outros grupos. The conscious halal consumer category can be further differentiated by a variety of other O consumidor consciente halal categoria podem ainda ser diferenciados por uma variedade de outros variables which are decisive in the halal consumption: the generation, level of education, cultural variáveis ​​que são determinantes no consumo halal: a geração, o nível de educação, cultural background/country of origin and religious strictness or current a Muslim consumer adheres to. fundo / país de origem e rigor religioso muçulmano ou o consumidor adere ao atual. Sunni's have a different conception of halal than Shi'ites, but schools within these currents may have Sunitas têm uma concepção diferente de halal de xiitas, mas as escolas dentro destas correntes podem ter again different rules. novamente regras diferentes. Beliefs may still be differently operationalized in real‐life consumption choices, Crenças ainda pode ser operacionalizado de forma diferente nas escolhas de consumo na vida real, depending on personal character and convictions. dependendo do caráter e das convicções pessoais. Some may be more lax and be satisfied if they make Alguns podem ser mais flexíveis, e ficará satisfeito se fizerem an effort to avoid pork, while others may minutely check all the ingredients, additives and E‐numbers um esforço para evitar carne de porco, enquanto outros podem verificar minuciosamente todos os ingredientes, aditivos e E-números of the food, as well as try to check it for “secondary requirements” of slaughtering, such as absence of dos alimentos, bem como tentar verificar se há "necessidades secundárias" do abate, tais como ausência de machine or of stunned slaughtering. máquina ou do abate atordoado. The religious persuasion may be related to differences in ethnic or national origin. A convicção religiosa pode estar relacionada às diferenças de origem étnica ou nacional. The A Netherlands has significant groups of Muslims coming from Surinam (who again may have Indian or Holanda tem grupos significativos de muçulmanos provenientes do Suriname (que novamente pode ter índio ou Indonesian roots), Indonesia, Turkey, Morocco, Iraq, Iran, and various African countries. raízes da Indonésia), Indonésia, Turquia, Marrocos, Iraque, Irã e vários países Africano. They all have Todos eles têm different traditions, food preferences and concepts of halal consumption. diferentes tradições, preferências alimentares e conceitos de consumo halal. Furthermore there are differences in generation of having been in the west and in educational Além disso, há diferenças na geração de ter sido no oeste e no ensino level. nível. Although some first generation immigrants are highly educated, such as those from Iran or Iraq, Apesar de alguns imigrantes de primeira geração são altamente qualificados, como os do Irã ou do Iraque, on the whole the generational difference tends to have consequences for the level of education and sobre a geração toda a diferença tende a ter consequências para o nível da educação e da that in turn for the trust in organizations of the host country. que por sua vez, a confiança nas organizações do país de acolhimento. A higher level of education seems to be Um maior nível de escolaridade parece ser positively related to a higher trust in western institutions including in large anonymous organizations positivamente relacionada com uma maior confiança nas instituições ocidentais, incluindo em grandes organizações anônimas such as supermarket chains. tais como redes de supermercados. Salima El Haddaoui, a fourth‐year student at the Utrecht Polytechnic Salima El Haddaoui, um estudante do quarto ano na Escola Politécnica Utrecht University (Hogeschool) and currently internee at HIC, did a small study among 85 halal consumers University (Hogeschool) e atualmente internado na HIC, fiz um pequeno estudo entre 85 consumidores halal while working at Marhaba foods. enquanto trabalhava em alimentos Marhaba. She concluded that education seems to be an important factor in Ela concluiu que a educação parece ser um fator importante na how persons consume halal: “A large share of the MBO students [=relatively lower education in the como as pessoas consomem halal: "Uma grande parte dos alunos MBO [relativamente baixa escolaridade = no Netherlands, RED] do not trust anything that is in the supermarket, even though exactly the same Holanda], RED não confiar em nada que está no supermercado, mesmo que exatamente o mesmo meat lies also at the Islamic butcher” (Personal communication, March 18, 2010). carne também está no açougue islâmico "(comunicação pessoal, 18 de março de 2010). This seems also to be Este também parece ser confirmed by a study of Bonne & Verbeke, who concluded that the group of consumers that trust both confirmado por um estudo de Bonne & Verbeke, que concluiu que o grupo de consumidores a confiança que tanto Belgium and Islamic institutions equally well, “consisted of significantly more highly educated Bélgica e instituições islâmicas igualmente bem ", consistia em significativamente mais altamente qualificados respondents”, whereas the group that had a very low trust in Belgium institutions were generally less respondentes ", enquanto o grupo que tinha uma confiança muito baixo nas instituições da Bélgica foram, em geral menos educated (Bonne and Verbeke, 2008:120). educação (Bonne e Verbeke, 2008:120). One of our (younger) respondents, concurred: “The gap Um dos nossos (jovens) entrevistados, concordou: "A diferença [between the older and newer generations, RED] is too big to close”, referring to the difference [Entre as gerações mais velhas e mais novas, RED] é muito grande para fechar ", referindo-se à diferença between first generation immigrants from rural areas in Muslim countries and their children and entre a primeira geração de imigrantes provenientes de áreas rurais em países muçulmanos e seus filhos e grand‐children which received education including higher education in the Netherlands. netos que recebeu educação, incluindo a educação superior nos Países Baixos. (HAC (HAC interview) entrevista) All these dimensions – ethnic background, religious denomination, immigrant generation, Todas essas dimensões - origem étnica, religião, geração de imigrantes, education, and personal conviction ‐ influence the halal consumption behavior of Muslims. educação, pessoal e convicção - a influência do comportamento do consumo halal dos muçulmanos. They Eles produce a highly differentiated halal market which presents quite some mysteries for the western produzir um mercado altamente diferenciada halal, que apresenta bastante alguns mistérios para o oeste marketer who considers entering this market. comerciante que considera a entrarem neste mercado. 2.4.2. 2.4.2. The Domestic Market O Mercado Interno The domestic market for halal products in the Netherlands is seen to be rather big, as the Muslim O mercado interno para produtos halal na Holanda é visto ser bastante grande, como o muçulmano population is at present time estimated to be around 1/16 of the total population. população é, neste momento, estimado em cerca de 1 / 16 da população total. It has been Ele foi estimated that the number of Muslims in the Netherlands is around 940.000; almost 1 percent of the estima-se que o número de muçulmanos na Holanda é de cerca de 940,000, quase 1 por cento do total Muslim population in Europe (KasehDia, 2009). total de população muçulmana na Europa (KasehDia, 2009). This is also in line with the estimations of an Isto está também em linha com as estimativas de um

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15 15 official LNV report, which states that almost 1 million Muslims are present in the Netherlands LNV relatório oficial, que afirma que quase 1 milhão de muçulmanos estão presentes na Holanda (Loseman et all, 2002). (Loseman et all, 2002). Not only is the size of the market quite large, the present growth rates seem to be substantial Não é apenas o tamanho do mercado muito grande, as taxas de crescimento presentes parecem ser substanciais too. também. This is due to several factors. Isto é devido a vários fatores. First of all, Muslims show higher growth rates as compared to non‐ Em primeiro lugar, os muçulmanos mostram taxas de crescimento mais elevadas em comparação aos não- Muslims; of the 80.388 population growth in 2008 in the Netherlands, are 72 290 classified as being Os muçulmanos, do crescimento populacional 80,388 em 2008 na Holanda, são 72 290 classificados como “non‐western” (CBS, Population Development Data). "Não-ocidental" (CBS, população, desenvolvimento de Dados). This trend will most probably continue as Essa tendência provavelmente continuará como Muslims – and non‐western immigrants in general – have higher birth rates: where the average Muçulmanos - e os imigrantes não-ocidentais em geral - têm taxas de natalidade mais altas: quando a média amount of children for a native dutch woman is 1.78, this is 1.93 for non‐western immigrants and even quantidade de filhos que uma mulher holandesa nativa é 1,78, isto é 1,93 para imigrantes não-ocidentais e até mesmo 2.6 for Moroccan mothers, one of the largest Muslim groups in Holland (CBS, Birth Rates Sorted by 2,6 para as mães marroquino, um dos maiores grupos de muçulmanos na Holanda (CBS, taxas de natalidade Ordenadas por Origin Mother). Origem Mãe). Another reason for this growth is the increasing level of living; as Muslims move up the Outra razão para esse crescimento é o aumento do nível de vida, como os muçulmanos subir na social and financial ladder, their possibilities to spend more on halal food becomes larger. e financeira da escada social, suas possibilidades de gastar mais em alimentos halal se torna maior. They Eles become able to pay a premium for halal food at for example grocery stores, ready‐to‐meals and tornar-se capaz de pagar um prémio para a comida halal para mercearias exemplo, pronto-a-refeições e others: producers can therefore expand the diversity of halal products, which enlarges the market outros: os produtores podem, portanto, ampliar a diversidade de produtos halal, que amplia o mercado again; a reinforcing expansion. novamente, um reforço de expansão. Lastly, the earlier mentioned search for a “pure” Islam causes many Por fim, a mencionada pesquisa anterior para uma "pura" Islã muitas causas (young) Muslims to deepen their knowledge about the Islam. jovens), muçulmanos (para aprofundar seus conhecimentos sobre o Islã. This increased awareness for their Esta maior conscientização para os seus religion and its rules, also leads to an emphasis on the halal prescriptions; Muslims are more aware of religião e suas regras, também leva a uma ênfase nas prescrições halal, os muçulmanos estão mais conscientes da the ingredients of the food and therefore ask for stricter rules and “real” halal products; the halal os ingredientes do alimento e, portanto, pedem regras mais estritas e "real" de produtos halal, o halal consumption extents from meat to food in general, and sometimes even to cosmetics and financial extensões do consumo de carne de alimentos em geral, e às vezes até mesmo cosméticos e financeira products. produtos. The increasing amount of research that is done on this topic again reinforces this A quantidade crescente de pesquisas que são feitas sobre este tema novamente, reforça esta development: the halal market is growing, and seems to continue growing. desenvolvimento: halal o mercado está crescendo, e parece continuar crescendo. 2.4.3. 2.4.3. The Export Market O mercado de exportação The export market is very different from the local “uncle‐and‐aunty” market; personal connections are O mercado de exportação é muito diferente do local "tio e tia-mercado", as relações pessoais são impossible to maintain when the meat crosses thousands of kilometres and many borders, with the impossível de se manter quando a carne atravessa milhares de quilômetros e muitas fronteiras, com a ever increasing food chains. cada vez maior das cadeias alimentares. The export market is therefore far more organized as compared to the O mercado de exportação é, portanto, muito mais organizado em relação ao domestic market; more regulations are necessary and central checkpoints such as the national mercado interno, a regulamentação é mais central e postos de controle necessárias, tais como o nacional customs, prevent a very unorganized market to emerge. aduaneira, impedir que um mercado muito desorganizada a surgir. As was the case with the domestic market, Como foi o caso com o mercado interno, estimations are very hard to make. As estimativas são muito difíceis de fazer. Nevertheless, many estimates have been made, resulting in an No entanto, muitas estimativas foram feitas, resultando em um often‐heard estimation of around 1.6 freqüentemente ouvida estimativa de cerca de 1,6 9 9 ‐1.8 billion -1800000000 10 10 Muslims, with a total market value of $634.6 Os muçulmanos, com um valor de mercado total de $ 634,6 million milhões 11 11 , which is around 16% of the total global food industry. , Que é cerca de 16% da indústria alimentar global total. Further, halal consumers are very Além disso, os consumidores são muito halal much spread out over the globe. muito mais espalhadas por todo o globo. This is not only due to the geographical dispersion of the Islam itself, Este não é apenas devido à dispersão geográfica do Islã em si, but also largely a consequence of the large amounts of migrants worldwide; of the total amount of 1.6‐ mas também em grande parte uma conseqüência da grande quantidade de migrantes no mundo; do montante total de 1,6 1.8 billion Muslims (which amounts to a 23% of the worldwide population), one‐fifth or 300 million live 1.800.000 mil muçulmanos (o que equivale a um 23% da população mundial), um quinto ou 300 milhões de pessoas vivem in countries as a religious minority (Pew Research Center's Forum on Religion & Public Life, 2009). em países como uma minoria religiosa (Centro de Pesquisas Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life, 2009). Despite the large numbers that are presented here, the majority of the market is still in the hands of Apesar do grande número que são apresentadas aqui, a maioria do mercado ainda está nas mãos de local butcheries and not accessible for large multinationals. açougues locais e não é acessível para as grandes multinacionais. For example, Mekkafoods, a European Por exemplo, Mekkafoods, um europeu halal‐snacks producer has estimated that around 60‐70% of their turnover is derived from their -Lanches produtor halal estimou que cerca de 60-70% de seu faturamento é proveniente das suas “traditional” division; the others, such as the retail, horeca and private label division generate the tradicional "divisão", os outros, como a hotelaria e restauração, comércio e divisão de private label gerar o remaining 30‐40% of the turnover. restantes 30-40% do volume de negócios. (Interview René van Appeldoorn, 2010) This is also supported by (Entrevista com René van Appeldoorn, 2010) Este também é apoiada pela the KasehDia report on the European halal market: there is reported that the total market share of KasehDia o relatório sobre o mercado halal europeu: há informou que a quota de mercado total de international trade is “below ten percent of the potential size” (KasehDia, 2009). comércio internacional é "abaixo de dez por cento do tamanho do potencial" (KasehDia, 2009). Moreover, the bulk of Além disso, o volume de the halal products is still the halal meat, while in principle every single consumer product could be os produtos halal ainda é a carne halal, enquanto que, em princípio, todos os produtos de consumo único poderia ser halal and interesting for the Muslim consumer; an increasing amount of Muslims already looks into the halal e interessante para o consumidor muçulmano, um número crescente de muçulmanos já olha para o possibilities of halal finance, halal cosmetics and halal food, rather than just halal meat. possibilidades de financiamento halal, halal cosméticos e alimentos halal, ao invés de apenas a carne halal. Adding these A adição desses numbers to the meat market, results in a huge potential market that is yet largely unexplored. números para o mercado de carne, resulta em um enorme potencial de mercado que ainda é pouco explorado. 9 9 CIA Factbook. Religions . CIA Factbook. Religiões. Retrieved on https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the‐world‐ Página visitada em https: www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world- / / factbook/docs/notesanddefs.html?countryName=World&countryCode=xx®ionCode=oc#2122 factbook / docs / notesanddefs.html? countryName = World & countryCode = xx & regionCode = oc # 2122 10 10 Hajjah Jumaatun Azmi, founding member of the World Halal Forum and KasehDia managing director, Report of Hajjah Jumaatun Azmi, membro fundador do Fórum Mundial de Halal e diretor KasehDia, Relatório de the fourth World Halal Forum. o quarto Fórum Mundial de Halal. The Halal Journal, July + August 2009, page 24. O Jornal Halal, Julho + Agosto de 2009, página 24. 11 11 KasehDia, World Halal Forum Report, 2009:p.2. KasehDia, Relatório Mundial Fórum Halal, 2009: p. 2. Available by request of KasehDia. Disponível por solicitação do KasehDia.

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16 16 2.4.4. 2.4.4. Two Halal Markets: Local “Uncle‐and‐Aunty” vs. Professional International Markets Dois Mercados Halal Local: "Tio-e-Tia" vs Professional Mercados Internacionais A very important factor in describing the market for halal food, is the distinction between the “official” Um fator muito importante para descrever o mercado de alimentos halal, é a distinção entre a "oficial" market, and the local, “uncle and aunty” market, mentioned before. mercado, e os locais ", tio e tia" do mercado, mencionado antes. These are two separate markets Estes são dois mercados distintos that include different consumers, producers and certifiers. que incluem diferentes consumidores, produtores e certificadoras. The “official” market includes all the large‐ O oficial de "mercado" inclui todos os grandes scale, exporting companies and certification agencies which have often clear marketing campaigns, escala, as empresas exportadoras e agências de certificação, que têm campanhas de marketing clara, muitas vezes, official sites and worldwide connections. sites oficiais e conexões em todo o mundo. Major players in Europe are Nestlé, Tesco, Carrefour, Doux Os jogadores principais na Europa estão a Nestlé, a Tesco, Carrefour, Doux and Friesland Coberco Dairy Foods Holding. e Coberco Laticínios Frísia Holding. The “uncle and aunty” market on the other hand is mainly O "tio e tia" do mercado, por outro lado deve-se principalmente a local phenomenon, in which the local butcher sells halal food to a member of the same social or ethnic group, on the basis of trust. Even though – or probably because of – the local character of this market, its total market share of the halal market seems to be far ahead of the international, organized market as already discussed before. Consequently, the “uncle‐and‐aunty” market has still by far the largest market share, although this is likely to change: as the different dimensions of ethic background, generation (education & trust in “western” organizations), and religious current or personal strictness in Halal change, the choice for a different market will change in a similar way. For example, if a consumer who is very strict in its belief, from the second generation, low education and from a Moroccan background has to choose, we can state with almost 100% certainty that this person will never buy anything from the professional market, but will rely on the personal trust relations being present in the “uncle‐and‐aunty” market. Conversely, a high‐educated, third generation Muslim who is very strict, will possibly buy some food at the grocery stores which they do trust, such as packed meat. However, these are nice, simple cases; how about a third generation person, who is very strict, highly educated and from a Surinamese background? Once again, there is no such thing as “The” Muslim consumer; they differ largely on all dimensions and preferences, which make developments in this market very hard to predict. However, No entanto, the coming and taking over of the newer generation is very likely to change the outlook of this market. Not many of them will take over the small, local shops of their parents, and if they do it is likely they will professionalize this to conform to the host country's standards. Moreover, they themselves are more used to the modern way of shopping, no longer being satisfied with small local shops in which they cannot buy all their products at once. So not only supply, but also demand is likely to decline as new generations replace the older generations. Nevertheless, there is still a long way to go for the multinationals being anxious to enter this almost unexploited market. One of the main factors that might provide them an opening – or at least make it more easily accessible – is a certificate which guarantees the halal status of the product. And E indeed, a whole market has emerged in these certificates.

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17 17 3. 3. The Workings of the Market for Halal Certifications 3.1. 3.1. Need for Regulation, or at least Certification, of Halal The expansion of the global and national markets for halal products, the new food technologies, the immigration flows, the multi‐culturalization of societies, and the increase in international trade between non‐Muslim and Muslim countries, all have increased the risks and uncertainties in transactions for Muslims. These risks and uncertainties have fueled a demand for information and for some guarantee that what is offered by food suppliers pretending to sell halal food is really what it is supposed to be. deveria ser. Concretely, it is a demand for reliable information, guaranteeing that the product is solidly halal. Thus, next to a growing demand for halal food there is also a growing demand for signs of certainty that the product is what it pretends to be. Such signs can be summarized in and represented by a certificate or halal hallmark. And, as we will describe in the following chapter, next to a market for halal products, also a market for halal certificates has developed in response to this demand; a market, because the demand has been met by more than one supplier. A curious market at that, which brings together quite different worlds, something akin to the uneasy 'combination of fire and water', as several interviewees called it (among others interviews with HIC and HAC): commerce and religion, informal trust relations and the formal world of inspection, paperwork and certification, cultural differences as regards food and slaughtering, both between the West and the Muslim world, but also between Muslims from quite different national/ethnic backgrounds and so on. 3.2. 3.2. The Product O Produto Three different types of 'products' try to satisfy this demand for certainty. First of all, it can be a brand name of the producer or seller himself. The brand should stand for the reputation of the supplier. It É makes the goods and their supplier identifiable, and hence enables the customer to sanction a supplier if he experiences that the supplier did not sell the quality expected, by henceforth avoiding goods bearing this brand name. Major food retailers like Sainsbury, Carrefour or Albert Heijn do so with their name brands. Some Halal food producers have been trying to build up such a reputation for halal food, notably Mekkafoods in Venlo and Wahid Meat in Rotterdam. Secondly, the guarantee can come from an external third party, a certifier guaranteeing the quality with a certificate or halal hallmark, in the form of a label on the product or a piece of paper with signatures and stamps accompanying a shipment and certifying that it is genuinely halal. Thirdly, there is still the old traditional informal form of a fatwa or religious verdict of a local imam, stating during the Friday afternoon gathering in the mosque that a certain brand is halal, or supports a certain certificate. Two types of certification exist. The first type certifies the product, that is, its ingredients as well as the processes by which it has been prepared or passed through, from slaughtering to distribution logistics. The second certifies a site, a slaughterhouse, factory, transport or storage building, which have the capacity to produce, process or transport halal products, and whose management has the willingness to reserve it for this. Will this site or person actually carefully control for the halal requirements? Or is he/she/it merely requesting the certificate to be able to access the halal market without really caring for the halal status of the meat? 3.3. 3.3. The Customers of the Certificates Buyers of fatwa's and certificates are the suppliers of halal food who want to provide customers with information from third parties that their products are halal. Most of these customers are not Muslim themselves, and often trade also in haram products. Earlier we made a distinction between local “uncle‐and‐aunty” shops and professional food producers. The local butchers and shoarma/kebab

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18 18 shops do not seem to need a certificate, as they rely mostly on personal relations and reputations. It É may be that in time they also want to give their shop a bit more of a professional look, with a halal quality certificate on the wall. They may be the customers of the do‐it‐yourself certificates that one can download for free from the internet. These are then in fact attempts to support the brand of 'Muhammed's best kebab', although they pretend otherwise, namely third party certification. The customers of more reliable certificates are Western producers that want to export to Muslims countries and need to convince the custom authorities that their products are genuinely halal. Interested parties are also domestic retailers, such as Albert Heijn or the Hema, who in Amsterdam sells halal smoked sausages, halal wine, coffee and halal djellaba's. Customers may also be suppliers of parts or services, such as construction companies building mosques, producers of slaughtering equipment or of floors for halal slaughter houses, or company restaurants (eg from Shell), hospitals or prisons that want to communicate to their employees, patients or inmates that they supply reliable halal food. For them, a halal certificate could open new markets. Halal certification may be useful, if not necessary, by organizations along the increasingly longer halal supply chains, companies involved in the logistics along the global halal‐trade highway: farmers, intermediate buyers, additives producers, transporters using various means of transport, storage facility providers, wholesalers, distributors and eventually retailers. Muslim's sensitivity towards the halal status of the product requires all the actors along the chain to provide a “proof” of halal status. Simply because the failure of a single actor along the chain in keeping halal products separate from haram ones can destroy the halal value of the whole shipment: a trucker who uses a truck that before transported pork and was not cleaned well enough, an employee eating a ham sandwich for lunch. Reliable certifiers need to be able to guarantee that no such cross‐contamination has taken place along the long supply chains, that every single step, ingredient, enzyme and person along this chain is fully controlled for. It seems an almost impossible task, although some certifiers do aim at controlling for all these 'critical points'. It would require use of the most modern 'tracking and tracing' ICT technology, and would go beyond the already high standards HACCP certification 3.4. 3.4. The Suppliers: Imams, Producers & Certifying Agencies (and others: do‐it‐yourself certificates ) ) The market for halal certificates is – just as the market for halal – largely unorganized. This has not made it easy to describe this market in a simple and transparent manner. We have collected information about the suppliers of certificates, their structure and activities and mutual relations, using a variety of sources. We consulted the media (domestic and foreign newspaper articles, TV programs, relevant internet websites), identified a number of major players in this market and conducted interviews with representatives of certificate providers as well as some of their (organization) customers. Altogether we found the sector quite accessible. There is a substantial amount of information available, albeit scattered and rather fragmented. All those whom we approached for an interview (see for an overview the appendix) were very willing to do so, and took extensive time for us. They intended to be open and transparent ‐ after all they are in the business of increasing transparency ‐ yet of course they did not always speak their mind completely, especially when it came to commercial issues: prices for certificates, how many customers, which customers, market share, turnover, profits, etc. None of them publishes an annual report publicly. 3.4.1. Certificates & Certifiers The number of halal certificates /certifiers in the Netherlands is mostly estimated, both in the press and by our respondents, to be around 30‐40, including individuals, self‐certifiers and local Imams who certify some products. The Turkish English language newspaper 'Sunday's Zaman' of Jan. 13, 2010 cited Hüseyin Büyüközer, chairman of the Food Auditing and Certification Research Association

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19 19 (GİMDES), the first body to issue halal certificates in Turkey, who noted that 'his organization has detected some 30 certifiers in the Netherlands and another 13 in Germany which issue “fake halal certificates”', implying that if one adds the reputable certifiers, the number would be still higher. This group of thirty to forty can be roughly divided into three groups: the larger, official certifying bodies (HVV, HQC, Halal Correct, HIC and Halal Audit Company, of which the first three are the more established, internationally recognized bodies); the small, often individual certifiers (self‐ certifiers and imams); and the international certification bodies (IFANCA, JAKIM, IHI Alliance). The A official and international organizations are found in both the domestic and export markets. The self‐ certifiers and imams are mainly operating in the markets of local uncle‐and‐aunty shops. a. a. HVV/HFFIA (Halal Feed and Food Inspection Authority) The Halal Feed & Food foundation seems to be one of the three larger, well‐established certifying agencies in the Dutch halal market, the others being HQC and Halal Correct. It is one of the oldest organizations, having its roots back to the 1960s. Its approach towards halal is simple and strict: “better safe than sorry”. This for religious and ideological reasons ‐ it was the only organization where people refused to shake hands with the opposite gender ‐ but also for commercial reasons. By Por maintaining the strictest standards its certificate should be valuable for the largest group of Muslims possible, for the whole range from fundamentalist to liberal. Given this orientation, the organization is 'barely present' on the domestic market, more on the European one, having among others Nestlé and Campina Food as its customers. Therefore, it can charge a higher price. 'We are the most expensive one in Europe', director Abdul Qayyoem proclaimed proudly. From the income generated they can employ a staff of 23 auditors. Table 1. A Tabela 1. Overview of Major Halal Certifiers in The Netherlands a. a. Name: HVV/HFFIA Site : www.Halal.nl Chair: Mr. Qayyoem ‐ Main player ‐ One of the oldest ‐ Founded by first generation immigrants, religiously conservative ‐ founder of Surinamese decent ‐ Reputation based on name & strictness ‐ Very strict ‐ Considered most expensive ‐ Number of Employees: 23 ‐ Certifies for large MNOs & exports ‐ Quite professional ‐ Yet unprofessional website ‐ backed by Authority of MUI & JAKIM b. b. Name: HQC /COHS Site: Site: www.Halaloffice.com Chair: mr. Chaman ‐ Main player ‐ Founded in 1983 ‐ Run by Honorary Consul of Syria in NL NL ‐ Very active in international trade; recognized by Muslim countries ‐ Reputation may be based on position in international diplomatic network rede ‐ Unprofessional website ‐ Uses volunteers and external laboratories laboratórios ‐ Strict (?) ‐ Reputedly low priced ‐ Recognized by the Malaysian JAKIM, and claims also to be backed by Authority of MUI, Indonesian Imam Organization Organização ‐ Number of employees: 1+ c. c. Name: TQ HCC Site: Site: www.Halalcorrect.com Chair : mr. Ali Salah ‐ Main player, Estimated to be the largest commercial one by competitors concorrentes ‐ Founded in 2000, by Tunisian immigrant; active since 1995 ‐ Expensive ‐ Number of Employees: 6 ‐ Very strict ‐ Very professional; in controls, recordkeeping ‐ Very professional website ‐ Reputation: professionalism based ‐ Accredited by Malaysian JAKIM and Indonesian MUI and Islamic Univ. of de Rotterdam Roterdão d. Name: HIC Site: Site: ‐ Chair is an imam, related to Wahid Halal Meat Wholesale; founded as ‐ For these reasons popular certifier for large supermarket chains (Albert Heijn,

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20 20 www.hic‐quality.com Chair: mr. M. Ahmed Founder: Fundador: mr. mr. W. Ramdjan certifier of that firm ‐ founder of Surinamese decent ‐ Relatively low priced ‐ Certification is not a full time activity for the management, so not very commercial ‐ Personnel: works with 'volunteers' (Muslim slaughterhouse personnel paid an extra) ‐ Less strict: allows slaughtering of stunned animals C‐1000, Super de Boer, Jumbo, Vomar) who do not want to sell not‐stunned halal slaughtered meat with eye to non‐Muslim customers; and want to keep prices low ‐ Certifies mainly for the domestic market mercado ‐ Claims backed by Cairo's Al Azhar University Universidade e. Name: Foundation National Halal Keur Chair: mr. E. Poyraz ‐ Owns and guards a Hallmark ‐ Inspections are done by HAC f. Name: HAC Site: Site: www.halalaudit.nl Chair : mr. mr. M. M. Korkmazyurek ‐ Recently founded by Muslim accountancy graduates of Auditor program of Polytechnics ‐ some from Bosnian‐Herzegovina decent decente ‐Audits the above Foundation National Halal Keur ‐ Focus on controls based on professional auditing ‐ Professional website ‐ Organizes also trainings for in‐ company halal control departments ‐ Number of Employees: 5 ‐ Manned by young people g. Name: Foundation Halal Certificates Site: Site: www.halalcertificates.com Chair: Presidente: mr. mr. IA Farouk ‐ Market share estimated by mr. IA Farouk as 10% ‐ Both Export & Import ‐ Provides information concerning Halal Halal ‐ Older actor on the market, already involved ever since the 70s. ‐ Least strict: "Dutch Law for Slaugther = Islamic Law for Slaughter" b. b. HQC (Halal Quality Control) / COHS (Control Office of Halal Slaughtering) or 'Halal Office' The second main player on the Dutch halal certification market is HQC, or Halal Quality Control. The A person in command of this organization, the honorary consul of Syria in the Netherlands, mr. Abdul Munim Al Chaman, states that HQC is the 'de facto authority'. This is the internationally known organization, and its name 'stands for halal'. Foreign ambassadors address HQC for information, and various delegations from Muslim countries visited the company for information exchange and negotiations over halal in the Netherlands. For example, Egypt no longer accepts pre‐slaughter bolt stunning and Mr. Al Chaman has been involved in negotiations with these foreign countries over this issue in which he more or less operated as the spokesperson for the Netherlands. Such negotiations have given him a reputation in countries like Egypt, Malaysia and Singapore, a reputation which he has subsequently used to certify halal slaughtering processes. HQC certification allows stunning, which is why Albert Heijn uses HQC to certify its halal chicken meat, produced by InterChicken. c. TQ HCC (Total Quality Halal Correct Certification) or Halal Correct The last of the 'Big Three' is Halal Correct, a foundation based in Leyden. This company has a less long history as the former two as it was founded 'only' in 2000, but seems to have built quite a reliable reputation. reputação. This is both due to the public presence of the chairman of the organization, mr. Ben Ali Salah of Tunisian origin (cf. Siebelink 2007 for a often cited published interview with him), as well as to the relatively professional impression of their organization and its operation. It pretends to 'screen until we cannot go any further', ie back and forward into the supply chain. It emphasizes transparency, good record keeping, and professionalism as the basis for its reputation, rather than relying on age and experience or support or recognition by some external Muslim authority or by a Muslim country, as competitors like HQC and HVV do. Correct certifies both for the domestic market (about half of their customers) and for exports to foreign markets.

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21 21 d. d. HIC (Halal International Control) Halal International Control is a smaller player on the market, yet important. It was originally founded as a certifying agency for the products of Wahid Meat. Presently, HIC has become officially separated from Wahid Meat to reduce conflicts of interest, although Wahid Ramdjan, the director of Wahid meat and founder of HIC, remains the spokesperson of the company. Formally, the current HIC director is an imam from Egyptian origin, who works a couple of hours a week for the company. Given that the real owner earns his living primarily as a meat producer and trader, with certification being merely a side‐ business, he can keep the prices for his certificates low. Whereas others ask rather high prices per kilogram meat certified, HIC maintains that it only ask for a member‐fee, which amounts to about 1500 Euros a year. In order to save on costs, the company works primarily with a network of so‐called 'volunteers', Muslims that already work in the slaughterhouses, do the ritual slaughtering there, and certify that they did so for HIC. In return they get some extra pocket money from HIC. Thus the level of professionalism is lower than in other companies, as is also the level of independence of the certifiers from those to be certified. This holds both at the company level ‐ the link between HIC and Wahid Meat ‐ as on the individual level where slaughters are their own certifiers. The owner legitimizes this with the argument that 'Muslims should not pay more than necessary for halal', as expensive certification increase the cost price for halal consumers. And these customers are low income Muslims on the domestic market. Typically, HIC seems to work more for that market than for large scale exports. exportações. f. f. HAC (Halal Audit Company) The last of the five larger certification bodies in the Netherlands is the Halal Audit Company, or HAC. This company was formed only in 2003 by two Muslim students, graduating in Audit at the Rotterdam Polytechnic. One of these graduates, mr. Murat Korkmazyurek stated to be concerned about the uncertainty over the quality of meat sold as halal due to the lack of transparency that they perceived to be in the Dutch halal market. Paradoxically, by creating yet another certifier they seemed to merely add to this intransparency. Such was however not their original intention. Being trained in accountancy and auditing and being, as second or third generation immigrants to the Netherlands, rather well integrated in and familiar with Western culture, organizations, and operations, they aim for a more professional set‐up, following Western logistics and auditing techniques. In addition they organize trainings for in‐company quality controls. Only one of their customers is non‐Dutch, and about 60% is involved in exporting halal products. It has no link to the informal 'aunty‐and‐uncle' market and tries to base a reputation on similar grounds as Halal Correct; transparency, a modern approach, and professionalism. profissionalismo. It has quite a professional website as visiting card. g. g. Foundation Halal Certificates ( Stichting Halal Certificaten ) The foundation for halal certificates is supposed to be an 'impartial organization' and aims at giving halal and non‐halal consumers solid, unbiased information about everything that has to do with halal. In addition to this, it also provides certificates. Founder and leader is mr. IA Farouk, and got involved in the business in the 1970s, when he was working as a translator and the Dutch government and the embassy of Saudi Arabia got into problems over halal trade. He maintains to have been involved in the removal of a blacklisting of the Netherlands by Saudi Arabia in 1979. When he left Holland in 1981, the certification business was quite organized, but when he returned two years later, “it was war”. The A foundation takes the most liberal 'western' approach of all: “If you translate Dutch slaughtering laws literally, they are completely in accordance with the Sha'ria. The only difference is that Muslims also call the name of God during slaughter.” According to mr. Farouk, this is not really necessary, as first of all, most employees of slaughterhouses are Muslims, secondly, if they are not Muslims they are Christians, and lastly, if you mention the name of Allah before eating, that is fine too. He maintains to hold around 10% of the certification market, and the companies that are certified by them are “not the smallest”. He is opposed to others charging too high a price for certification. “Eventually the Muslim consumer pays the price, as all costs get passed on to him. So if I make sure that the costs are kept

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22 22 low, halal meat remains at a normal price”. Ie he is in the market segment of lower price, lower quality certificates. h. h. Self‐certifiers Besides the five larger certification agencies there are quite a few other certifying bodies, among them self‐certifiers. These are businesses who produce or buy food, and design a label for themselves which indicates the food being halal. Though the products have 'certificates', in reality they are more 'brand' labels of the producer himself, rather than third party certificates. The brand reputation tends to be largely based on the reputation of the person behind the product or an established company. A larger Um maior and more professional organization engaged in self‐certification is the snacks producer Mekkafoods in Venlo, which halal snacks such as hamburgers, sausages, croquettes, and pizza's, to be sold mostly in small, local supermarkets and toko's, where it has a acquired a market share for such products of 60‐ 70%. 70%. Mekkafoods has been established as a reputable brand, without the explicit use of any halal certificate . The company has certificates or supports from several Imams and Islamic agencies, who have visited the factory to check the halal status of the food. i. i. Informal certifiers Then there are the informal certifiers, mostly imams who certify – usually local – products on the basis of personal relations to the producers and sellers. The imam may either sign a certificate that a local butcher hangs in his shop, or orally declare that a certain product (often connected to a person) is halal. Most certifiers rejected these practices for two reasons: first, for lack of objectivity as personal sympathies or obligations may prevail over truth. Secondly, because the definition of imam is too broad in the Netherlands. Critics maintained that many of the so‐called 'imams' lacked sufficient knowledge of halal, or even of the Islam: “98% of the Imams (..) have not studied the Qur'an (…) They became somehow an imam here, because they were famous in their village”, as one of the respondents put it (Farouk, February 10 th ª , 2010). Certifier Ben Ali Salah of Halal Correct referred to the case of an imam who certified a sick cow as 'halal'. He had come across several of such practices and considered these 'below standards': “I don't even think that this would be allowed according to human standards, let alone halal standards”. j. j. Do‐it‐yourself certificates The next category of 'certifiers', or rather another form of self‐certifying, is provided by the do‐it‐ yourself certificates. These are not uncommon in this market: putting up a certificate designed oneself in order to convince the customer that you and your products are halal. Talking of external certificate‐ suppliers, there exists a website online where everyone can obtain their own certificate, and in which one can add one's own particulars. 12 12 Obviously, such a certificate certifies not very much, but as long as customers are impressed it may serve a function ‐ at least for the seller. If it would be indeed used, it would be indicative for the state the market for certificates is in: intransparency, complexity, anarchy, corruption. 3.4.2. Differences & Similarities Now the largest certifying bodies have been identified, some differences and similarities can be discussed. In order to differentiate their approaches towards the halal concept, the same categorization as introduced before is used, which is on the basis of generation, ethnic background, religious current/strictness and educational level 13 13 . . In general, younger generations are more focused on transparency and less on informal trust relationships, whilst the older generations are more operating on the basis of their informal network 12 12 http://www.halalcertificate.com/ 13 13 All these dimensions are discussed in a largely implicit way, as it impossible to give clear‐cut definitions or categorizations of the agencies in each of these dimensions: in too many ways they are interconnected and overlapping, causing a categorization too blurry to use. Nevertheless, this theoretical categorization is very useful in the sense that it provides a means that it makes it easier to grasp the nature and issues involved in the market.

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23 23 and their statement that they are Muslim and thus know what is halal and what not. The ethnic background determines to some extent the approach: agencies where the origins of the founders lie in former colonies of western countries such as Surinam or Egypt seem to be more used to the western approach of relying largely on science, accountability and transparency. Agencies who have their roots in Muslim countries or countries which are less influenced by “the western” mentality seem to be operating according to the values and norms used in their country of origin. Agencies which are stricter in the interpretation of their religion and in the translation of the prescriptions of the Qur'an into practical rules are generally more inclined to apply the strictest rules possible, although the fatwa of a mufti that is regarded an authority by them will prevail. Generally, none of the certification agencies seemed to adhere to a specific school of Islam. Lastly, the educational level seems not to have a large influence on the way certification agencies work, but has more influence on how consumers perceive halal certificates and products from western origin. So the similarities are not very hard to find: all agree that halal should not be abused, that it is a service to the Muslim consumer and that the Ummah should be supported trough these activities. In Em general they also seem to agree on the main halal standards, and accept the norms the other certifiers use, although there is criticism on issues as price and frequency and quality of the audits. Further, all agree that there does not exist “99%” halal; something is halal or not halal, nothing more, nothing less. Consequently, all agree that the term 100% halal is not very applicable, although most do refer to it multiple times. Notably, this mostly refers to the issues of price and reliability of the audits, rather than the notion of the product being partly halal or not. The differences in the acceptance of certain halal standards are largely seen as the absence of due knowledge, most seem to agree that the cultural and ethnic differences have some influence too. Often is referred to the fact that certain schools of Sunni Islam do not accept some types of sea food, whereas others do. This is a general accepted difference, and can also be translated into some differences in opinion in the Netherlands. This leads to the differences between the certifiers: what are their main differences and what are the causes? The first seems to be the approval of stunning; some argue that stunning should always be reversible, whereas others stress the importance of the most animal friendly way of slaughter. Conversely, some reckon that the main issue is that the animal should not be dead at the time of slaughter, and all other requirements are not important. The certifiers from the first and second generation are mainly focused on fulfilling the halal requirements, so that the animal should not be dead before slaughter, whereas the younger generations stress on top of this the importance of animal friendly slaughter methods. Certifying agencies who are stricter in their religious approach, do not accept stunning methods that are not reversible or cause permanent damage to the animal. The next large difference is based on the strictness of auditing; how often, how strict and how far in the production chain should the audit be? For example at the slaughter site, how many Muslims need to work there in order to make the production process halal? The average seems to be around 2 or 3, although numbers between zero and twenty were mentioned too. For the agencies which have a more modern approach towards halal, a production process and ingredients which ensures the halal status of meat is sufficient to label it halal; checking once or twice a year or as the production process changes is regarded sufficient. However, for the companies based on more informal regulation require Muslim employees to work at the production site or auditors checking the site regularly. Night shifts to check a site when it switches the process from haram to halal slaughtering are apparently not uncommon, although this results in much higher costs as compared to checking the process sometimes and relying on the rules as prescribed in the production regulations. Another issue of strictness in the auditing is the question of how far in the production chain the auditor should check before declaring a product halal; should the acceptance of basic ingredients be enough, or have each of these ingredients be checked time until it cannot any further? Again, this seems to be an examination of the costs and benefits involved; does the very small risk of allowing for a haram or makruh ingredient in a product outweigh the costs of tracking the origins of this ingredient, therewith increasing the costs substantially and thus increasing the price for the Muslim consumer? Is É such a small risk worth the costs? This is up to the Muslim consumer and certifying agencies to answer, but so far the key actors seem not to have agreed on this issue yet.

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24 24 3.5. 3.5. Consequences of Marketization: Market Failures 3.5.1. The Importance of Credibility and Reputation; Individually and Collectively The market for halal certificates seems to 'work'. Or does it? Ou não? There is a demand, there is supply, there are prices, transactions, turnover, and growth. But does it work well? Are there perhaps 'market failures'? The real value that is being traded in the market for certificates is their reputation, the trust that buyers have in it as a guarantee that what they expect to buy is what they really buy. Trust and reputation are non‐tangible goods. You cannot eat them, live in them, even investing in them is difficult, at the very least quite risky. As a certificate customer you buy it, because relevant others believe it, so you hope. As long as these others take it serious and believe what it stands for, it keeps its value, following the Thomas theorem: 'If men believe something to be real, it is real in its consequences'. The challenge for certificate producers is to build and to maintain such a reputation of trustworthiness, something akin to the development of a brand name reputation. Building such a reputation takes time, but, as the familiar saying goes, 'trust comes on foot, but leaves on horseback'. Trust in a hallmark can be suddenly gone. All it may take is a well‐publicized scandal ‐ intentional fraud or even merely a mistake ‐ and the certificate is in crisis. Facts about scandals are not even necessary, rumors already do. And the speed by which information travels in our TV and ICT‐age only amplifies that risk: rumors spread now instantaneously. With the result, that trust does no longer leave on horseback, but literally with the speed of light. Time and again scandals have brought that message home. In more recent times the BSE scandal ruined the reputation of 'meat made in Britain', the recent financial crisis dealt a blow to the reputation of financial rating agencies such as Standard and Poor's and Moody's, and more in general to the reputation of the banking sector as a whole and the regulators of financial markets, and repeatedly stock values have collapsed after bookkeeping frauds became known, varying from Ahold to Banco Ambrosiano to Bernard Madoff Securities (see for a nice collection: http://projects.exeter.ac.uk/RDavies/arian/scandals/classic.html). While most of these examples still concerned trust in goods that still had a tangible value, such as beef or stores, stocks, and skills, tools, technology, rights and realty, such is not the case with the producers of quality certificates. 3.5.2. Easy Market Entry and Exit In our market, that for halal certificates, the conditions for building strong and broadly known reputations are so far not very favorable. First of all, market entry is in principle relatively easy. Not many investments have to be made to merely enter the market. All one needs is a printer to print impressive looking certificates, some customers who are willing to use them on of with their products, and some people who do ‐ or who pretend to ‐ hold inspections. The costs are generally low, or rather, there are certificate suppliers in the market who keep the costs low, and get away with it. Possibilities for acquiring external accreditation are rare, so do not require an effort. For similar reasons, market exit would be just as easy, as not much capital is destroyed. The ease of market entry has led to quite a few market entrants. Estimates range as said from 30 to 40, with 5‐6 main players. They have come from a variety of backgrounds: local butchers, wholesalers (HIC), consuls involved in international trade (HQC), students graduating from auditing programs at polytechnics (Halal Audit), or associations of Muslims (HVV). 3.5.3. Intransparency The relatively large number of certifiers for such a small country makes for intransparency of the market, certainly for the final domestic consumers, but also for the direct customers of the certifiers, the local shops catering to Muslims, the supermarket chains, and the exporters of meat and other food products, among them large multinational companies. The problems are exacerbated by the fact that the information problems, already present in the market for halal products, repeat themselves here in this market for certificates of halal quality, in particular also the problems of control posed by the importance of process standards for halal products.

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25 25 Add to this the differences of opinion among Muslim consumers, producers, traders, and religious authorities about what halal is or should be, whether '100% halal' is a possible or sensible claim and so on and it becomes clear that the market is in crisis. The certifiers complain themselves about this: 'There is a lack of transparency between the certifiers. That is because many do not know the halal rules and neither do they know Dutch society very well.' (HAC) These intransparencies and differences of opinion form a fruitful breeding ground for dabblers. Even those certifiers that are originally of good intent, may be forced by price competition in the market to partake in a race‐to‐the‐ bottom regarding price and consequently also quality of control. 3.5.4. Price Competition and a Race‐to‐the‐Bottom? There seems to be indeed price competition, albeit within three different segments of the market, which each cater to different customers, willing to pay different price levels: 1‐ the very low price, low costs, and low quality segment: the local butcher or grocery shop who does not mind to get some confirmation by the local imam during the Friday prayer in the local mosque that he, Mohammed, is reliable and sells '100% halal' meat. Basis of trust, and certification of that trust, is here primarily personal relations and acquaintance, not thorough professional inspection. The butcher may take the imam once with him to the slaughterhouse, to see how things are done there. The imams do this, not for a living, but merely to have some side income, either for themselves or for the mosque organization. organização. This butcher could be also a customer for a nice halal certificate that can be acquired more or less for free from the internet, something to merely embellish his butcher‐shop. 2‐ Then there is another low price ‐ low cost market segment, but now one that cannot (any longer) be based on personal relations: the more anonymous mass market of second and third generation Muslim immigrants in Europe, culturally diverse, who increasingly shop in the large Western food retailers and department stores, like Albert Heijn, Carrefour, or Sainsbury. This market is also served by large multinational food producers, such as Nestlé or Unilever. These producers and sellers need a halal certificate based on some scientific quality evidence derived from systematic inspections, provided by organizations that work a bit similar to their own organization of value chain logistics and internal quality control. They want some minimal evidence of quality inspections, but it should not be too costly as they compete very much on prices with other retail chains, and are large and powerful enough to demand significant price concessions. This market segment is served by certifiers such as HIC, who certifies meat for Albert Heijn, and HQC, who does the same for the poultry supplier of AH. 3‐ Thirdly, there is the large export market to Muslim countries, where quality of inspection is much more important and where exporters are willing to pay higher prices for a more reliable certificate. These certifiers may even be visited by delegations of the importing countries directly. This market segment seems to be served by more professional certifiers such as HVV, Halal Correct, or Halal Audit. Within each of these market segments there seems to be price competition, resulting in some form of a 'race‐to‐the‐bottom', with the acceptable bottom being at different levels in each segment. Respondents estimated that certification costs may range between several hundred and 50.000 Euros a year, depending on the market segment. Cheapest are of course the self‐certifying websites (practically free), then the local imams, who may certify for a few hundred Euros for their mosque. Most expensive are, according to their competitors, HVV/HFFIA and Halal Correct. Mr. Al Chaman from HQC about HVV/HFFIA: 'I am co‐founder of HVV, but left over a conflict over prices. The director, Abdul Qayyoem, wanted 8 cents per kilogram meat certified, and with all expenses, such as travel costs, that came to 15 cents per kilo. That makes the product too expensive for the customer. It is É blood money. Same with Ali Ben Salah from Correct. If a new customer approaches them, they charge already 15.000 Euros to start with. Two years down the line it has become 30.000 and then they demand 7 or 7% of the invoice value charged to customers.' HVV/HFFIA admits that it is expensive, and that it has lost almost 50% of its customers to the competitors, but 'the customers are coming back. We may be more expensive, but also much better. And as the market gets more professional, that starts to count.' And Correct: 'We may be more expensive than HCQ and HIC, but they do nothing. We Nós like to compare ourselves with the large certifiers in the world.'

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26 26 From among the major certifiers, HIC seems to be the cheapest. It can keep his certification prices low, not only because the owner, mr. Wahid Ramdjan, seems to derive his income primarily from his wholesale activities, but also because Wahid has organized his inspections in such a way that they are low‐cost. Thus, typically, HIC employs hardly any inspectors, but rather relies on 'volunteers', ie Muslims who are already employed by the slaughterhouse. HQC concurs 'We work with many volunteers, Muslims that work already anyway in the slaughterhouses. Therefore we can be cheap. Why to have one's cake and eat it?' But the expensive competitors are critical. HVV: '80 percent of what HQC certifies is no halal. Their certificate is worth just 0.' And Halal Correct: 'I do not buy myself at Albert Heijn. I do not trust it for halal, because HIC certifies it. Albert Heijn gets its halal chicken from Interchicken, a large poulterer. That obtains part of its chicken from a slaughterhouse certified by HIC, but it also buys from others, where there may be no Muslims and no controls.' Mekkafoods, as 'western' producer of halal products a relative outsider: 'All certifiers in the Netherlands are profiteers, and make easy money. They come once to your factory, write a certificate and come never again. As a result there is no certificate that is accepted by everyone'. Therefore, he Portanto, ele has chosen to market his products with his brand name as quality proof, rather than a certificate from an external certifier. 'Independence of the certifier and strict control should give such certificates value, but there is neither independence nor real control.' Mekkafoods itself claims not to need any inspection by others, 'We only produce halal products, so they cannot get contaminated by others. But Mas our suppliers of meat do have certificates.' The large retailers in the 2 nd nd segment are not only price conscious, but have also substantial market power to demand lower prices. If retail chains manage to extract that from major food producers like Unilever, how much more will they be able to do so from small halal certifiers? Not for Não para nothing have supermarket chains chosen for HIC certificates, for one, because HIC allows slaughtering of stunned animals, but probably also because of its low prices. Large corporations, whether supermarket chains, food producing multinationals like Nestlé, or large meat exporters may be able to force prices down, thanks to the size of their orders. However, the costs of certification may be only minor compared to other costs. Yet, as they are often engaged in price wars for consumers, even such minor costs could make a difference in the competitive struggle. Nevertheless, the importance of quality of certification should not be underrated. Large Grande companies, visible to the general public, care a lot for their reputation. Lesser quality of controls may involve risks to that reputation. It might be worth to engage a more reliable certifier, even at the expense of higher costs. The costs of loss of reputation, due to a scandal may by far outweigh the minor costs of certification. Reputations take a long time to build and may be lost very quickly following a scandal, as the recent case of manufacturing mistakes of Toyota has brought home again. Even in the absence of a well‐publicized scandal there can be immediate losses. As mentioned before, Como mencionado anteriormente, our interviewees referred to multiple cases where meat exporters lost complete shipments, when customs officials of Muslim countries detected traces of haram. 3.5.5. Market Failure? The price competition, combined with the information asymmetries in the market as to the value of the certificates, and the presence of both malicious dabblers as well as well‐meaning, socially concerned Muslims who feel 'that fellow Muslims should not be forced to pay too much for their meat and other products' could produce 'race‐to‐the‐bottom' as regards the quality and reputation of halal certificates in general. A few bad apples are enough to infest the whole basket and make it smell. This has all the elements of a typical collective action problem, familiar from other cases, varying from cartels to strikes. Everyone profits from good reputation of certification ‐ just like anyone profits from the higher prices produced by the cartel or the higher wages produced by a strike. Yet for the individual there is a temptation to free ride: offering the goods at a price just below the price agreed in the cartel allows the individual supplier to increase his market share; and by not actively participating in the strike, an individual worker may be able to keep in good standing with his employer, to be rewarded in the future by a promotion or other individual pay raise. Similarly here, the halal certifiers have a collective interest in establishing trust in the market in the value of their

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27 27 certificates; but by lowering their own price a bit, at the cost of less expensive inspections, they may attract more customers for their label and thus increase their market share. The diversity of halal certificate suppliers and the Intransparency of this market ‐ no one seems to publish publicly available annual reports ‐ allow for that. The overall result is a bad reputation of the certification sector. The problem is exacerbated by outright illegal copying and other fraud. Certificates from reliable certifiers are illegally copied. The meat wholesaler Fasen Meat Trading in Breda was in 2009 accused of selling several thousand tons of meat in France improperly sold as halal with falsified documents (Volkskrant November 26, 2009). In the same year, the certifier HQC claimed that Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC) misled Muslim customers, by selling meat as halal with a document that only proved that a certain slaughterhouse could produce halal meat, not that this batch was slaughtered indeed so. Inquiries by the Volkskrant proved him right. Certificates which are downloadable for free from the internet, and which may be used by local butchers, do not help the reputation of halal certificates. certificados. The average final consumer has difficulty distinguishing the good from the bad. Distrust has indeed been spreading. Various Dutch TV programs and newspaper articles already referred to before have indicated such distrust, and reasons for it. Hüseyin Büyüközer, chairman of the earlier mentioned Turkish Food Auditing and Certification Research Association (GİMDES): “From our meetings with consumers in different European countries, we have found that people are complaining about unauthorized certifiers. Some unauthorized certifiers are issuing halal certificates without even seeing the face of the owner of the production facility. This is not how it should be. deveria ser. Having experienced similar misuses in the past, most Muslim consumers do not trust the halal labels on products and expect to see order in the market. This also causes unfair competition and discourages other certifier institutions who exert extra effort to ensure halal standards. The A opportunism has reached worrisome levels and should be stopped,” he said. Another major problem, he emphasized, is that some certifiers sell certificates for excessive prices. There are companies who must procure their halal certificates for 5,000 to 10,000 euros. This is high and way above normal costs.” (Hava in 'Sunday's Zaman' of Jan. 13, 2010) Participants in the interviews we conducted described the market as being “anarchy”; “craziness”, and “fighting and fierce competition prevail”. “It is a real us‐knows‐ us culture, this world of the many little certification businesses. If you are not in one of their acquaintance circles, you'd better not start with I”, 'You can get a certificate without any problems, if it is an acquaintance”. Many Muitos also pointed out to what they considered “objectionable practices”, such as “issuing halal certificates without even checking whether it is actually halal”; nepotism; 'butchers that certify their own meat' (referring to Wahid Meat and HIC); exorbitant prices; far too lenient or unprofessional certifiers. “The "O Dutch halal market is chaos”, was the headline of an extensive article by a Dutch newsmagazine (Vrij Nederland, “Herrie om Halal”, 1‐12‐2007:1). The confusion over different certificates is not only a problem domestically, but also on the international market. Marco Tieman, owner and director of LBB Logistics, daughter of MDS Logistics, who are building the global 'Halal SuperHighway' and in Malaysia a huge Global Halal Hub, complained: 'Companies that want to participate in this attractive market need halal‐certification. And E that is precisely where the problem lays. Every country has its own interpretation of what halal is, which is why there are different halal‐hallmarks'. He adds: 'However, the Malaysian halal hallmark has a much broader acceptance in different Muslim countries than other hallmarks; which is why many large industries that try to increase their market position in the Middle East and Asia choose to do their halal production in Asia' (Westra 2007: 37). He implies that if the Netherlands or other European countries want to compete in the growing global halal market, they will have to solve the problem of certification confusion. The Netherlands has made a good head start with developing Rotterdam as the 'halal gateway to Europe'. However, for the time being the distribution centers are still largely empty. And one of the problems is that of trustworthy certification. The confusion around and the distrust of halal certificates indicates that this market is in danger of 'failing'. As distrust spreads and reputations decline, the value of the certificates disappears and so will the willingness of customers to pay a price for such certificates.

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28 28 4. 4. The Search for Solutions Problems in the one market ‐ for halal products ‐ such as adulteration and fraud, made possible by information asymmetries, have produced the need for another product, for which subsequently a new market has been formed: the market for halal quality certificates. However, that derived market seems to experience the very same problems: information asymmetries, intransparency, amateurism, lack of economies of scale, and price competition, giving again rise to certificate adulteration, product laundering, fraud and loss of reputation and credibility. After market failures in the markets for halal products we see similar market failures in the market for halal quality certificates that are intended to provide a solution in the original market for halal products. Are there any solutions to these problems of this certification solution to the problem of fraud and distrust in the market for halal products? 4.1. 4.1. Individual Strategies and Self‐Organization by the Market Of course individual certificate providers could and perhaps do develop strategies to increase their own professionalism, transparency, and reputation and indirectly with that of the whole halal certification industry. They could also engage in active publicity campaigns and advertising, spreading the word about their reliability, among the general public, and with their prospective customers. By doing so they could help the market mechanism to organize that market itself. Competition Concorrência could bring order, by selecting and giving the upper hand to the more reliable certifiers and weeding out the less serious ones and the outright dabblers, thus developing a hierarchy among the certifiers. That has happened to some extent in the market for certifiers/raters of financial products. Although Embora there have been 92 rating agencies of financial products counted (Engelen 2010), three of them have managed to get the upper hand in that market: Standard and Poor's, Moody's, ad Fitch. Such has not yet happened in the world of halal certification. Weeding out the good from the bad and the ugly remains difficult if not impossible in markets plagued by information asymmetries. Customers will select on price if they cannot select well on the basis of quality, thus stimulating price competition at the detriment of quality, fueling a possible race‐to‐the‐bottom. 4.2. 4.2. Self‐Organization and Self‐Regulation through Associations? What about the option of collective self‐organization and self‐regulation of the sector? This has been a long‐time tried and trusted model of market ordering in the Dutch economy, part of what we have come to call our 'polder model'. For centuries, Dutch civil society formed bottom‐up associations and foundations that have tried and succeeded in regulating that society. In the market place these varied from the merchant and artisan guilds of the Middle Ages until the trade associations and cartels of the 20 20 th ª century (Van Waarden 1992, 1995). What about a cartelization of halal certification? Some Dutch Muslims have recently tried. The Rotterdam initiators for Halal Audit HAC started with the aim to bring all certifiers around the table to form an association, before they decided to create their own certification agency. A similar ambition had apparently mr. Farouk in Amsterdam. However, they had no success. Not only did these newcomers to the halal certification market lack the authority and standing to do so; there may have also been a culture problem involved. Centuries of Dutch history have produced cultural values emphasizing collective cooperation, supported by a variety of institutions. This may not have as yet permeated to the 'New Dutch', whose family histories stem from rather different cultures. Curiously enough, initiatives for such collective self‐organization are coming now from abroad, from precisely one of those foreign cultures where Dutch Muslim immigrants have their family roots. The Turkish 'Sunday's Zaman' published recently (13‐01‐2010) an article under the heading 'New

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29 29 organization to sort out rotten apples in European halal food market', in which it wrote: 'A projected umbrella organization to be dubbed the European Association of Halal Certifiers is expected to bring order and unity to the halal food sector in Europe, appealing to hundreds of thousands of consumers, yet operating without any halal supervision mechanism. A number of certifiers of halal food from Germany, France, the UK, Belgium, Austria, Denmark, Spain, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Turkey decided last week to lay the foundation for a single association to set the market in order and curb unfair competition. The establishment of the association will be officially announced in a signing ceremony in Belgium on Feb. 24, 2010 with the participation of all parties involved.' So far, this is merely a promise for the future. It may seem reasonable to organize a sector in this day and age of globalization at a supranational level. Yet it remains to be seen whether such an international organization will not be too diverse to allow it to come to effective forms of self‐regulation. 4.3. 4.3. Seeking Support from 'Higher Authorities' A third means for bringing order in the chaotic market for halal certificates may be backing from some authority widely respected in this world as well as among the final consumers ‐ Muslims ‐ and therefore also the direct customers of the certifiers, the (western) producers and sellers of halal products. produtos. Dutch public authorities have done so frequently in the past with for example sectoral trade associations and trade unions. Such backing has as yet not come for the sector of halal certification. However, many Dutch halal certifiers have sought recognition and support from an authority in the international Muslim world. Could the latter offer a solution to the problems of fragmentation, intransparency, fraud, and lack of credibility? Could it help standardizing halal certification standards and control procedures? 4.3.1. The Main Actors in the International Halal Market As discussed before, the international Muslim world is fragmented, dispersed over the globe and lacks central authority. There are many different organizations in different places active, and they differ in belief, opinion, and operations. Organizations are often linked to national governments, who may support or even steer these organizations for both political/religious and for commercial‐professional reasons, expecting legitimacy from these sources ‐ religious authorities and economic prosperity ‐ in return. retorno. Key countries are Saudi‐Arabia and Egypt which harbor the most important religious authorities, and where Islamic law and jurisprudence is developed, including as regards halal and haram. They exercise a religious authority . Organizations as the Al‐Azhar university and the council of Jiddah hold key positions in deciding what is halal or not. How to implement these rules in real life is yet a different matter. This leads us to the countries with a professional authority, such as Malaysia and Indonisia, as they set professional standards of how to organize halal. They are “the only countries that have a formal program to approve a halal‐certifying program” (Riaz & Chaudry, 2001:172) and are frontrunners in regulating halal on a national level. In addition, major exporters indirectly play also a role in setting global standards, even though they are usually non‐Muslim countries. Countries like Australia, Brasilia and New‐Zealand are not only models for Muslim countries when it comes to slaughtering and logistics technology; they have also well developed professional certification bodies linked to those logistics. As countries and companies are competing for a share or even a key role in the global halal market, they also aim at the key to the halal status of products, halal certification. So far, Malaysia seems to make good headway, thanks to its professional approach. However, it remains to be seen whether it can really assume a leading role, as any central position for Islamic matters has traditionally been held by Saudi‐Arabia and Egypt. As one of our respondents remarked: “Whether Malaysia likes it or not, in the end Muslims will listen to Saudi Arabia”. Other certifiers reckoned that a worldwide authority is more likely to emerge from the younger generation Muslims in Europe rather than in Asian or Middle‐East countries, as they have both a thorough understanding of the European and American modern society and business and of the halal norms and their incorporation into local businesses.

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30 30 4.3.2. Seeking Support There are thus quite a few international organizations, varying from very old and well established ones like the Al Azhar University in Cairo to the very young and embryonic European Association of Halal Certifiers to list two extremes. Dutch certifiers have sought and found support from some of these international or foreign halal authorities. The Halal Industry Development Corporation of Malaysia has by now recognized 47 certification bodies in 23 countries for exports to the Malaysia. 14 14 Their list illustrates the fragmentation of the Dutch market for halal certification. The small Netherlands is listed with 3 recognized certifiers, whereas major meat/food exporting and/or larger countries like Argentina, Brazil, Belgium, Denmark, India, Pakistan, Thailand, Indonesia, and Japan have only 1 recognized certifier, and the US, China, France, Germany only 2. The oldest Dutch organization HVV/HFFIA seems to have the broadest recognition abroad. It is É certified by the two major foreign Muslim accreditation bodies, the Malaysian JAKIM and the Indonesian Assessment Institute for Foods, Drugs, and Cosmetics MUI. 15 15 HFFIA is the only one also listed on several other smaller international websites and is one of the leading initiators of the new European AHC. 16 16 The MUI and JAKIM have also accredited Halal Correct, which has gotten also approval from the Islamic Board for Fatwa and Research of the Islamic University in Rotterdam. HQC is also recognized by the MUI and claims to be also accredited by JAKIM (although we could not confirm this from the website of JAKIM). But HQC seems to have in general good diplomatic relations with Muslim countries, as delegations of them have visited the honorary consul of Syria who is the figurehead of HQC, among others to discuss the acceptance of different stunning methods. HIC claims proudly that it is backed by the Al Azhar University. The younger certifier Halal Audit HAC says to be in contact with all of these organizations, but there is no formal approval yet. Farouk's Foundation is by neither accredited. 4.3.3. A 'Reverse California Effect'? Malaysia's accreditation seems to become a bit of a global standard. It is imposed and enforced by making certification by a recognized certifier a condition for access to the country and hence also for access to the developing global halal hub there, assuming that really comes to something. In a way this is a kind of 'California effect', a concept developed by David Vogel (1995). The essence of this principle is that a large market (like California or now Malaysia, and as its standard acquires broader recognition, more of the Muslim world) can impose standards on imports, thereby de facto forcing its regulations onto producers and traders abroad, a kind of 'governing across borders'. Part of the Parte do 'California effect' is subsequently that the producers abroad, which have managed to conform to the standards of 'California', have acquired an interest to lobby their own government for adoption of these standards, as it gives them a competitive advantage over their local competitors. Vogel's case of California suggests imposition of regulation from the West to the East. A 'Malaysia Effect' would be similar, but now from the East to the West. One might call it a 'reverse California effect'. In this way it could be that the Malaysian standards are gradually become recognized globally. But elevating these standards to global importance would mean also that Malaysia would acquire a competitive advantage as production location for halal products. As Tieman argues, this could go at a loss to the Dutch economy: disappearance of potential suppliers/exporters to Muslim countries to produce in these very countries. 4.4. 4.4. State Aid? Some regulation by the Dutch state might be needed to bring order in the market for halal certification, in order to facilitate transactions and to encourage exports and growth in the market for halal products. Also due to effects of international certification which are as yet unsure, given the fragmented structure of authority in the global Muslim world. The credibility problems are in the here 14 14 http://www.hdcglobal.com/portal/indices/index_158.html 15 15 http://www.halalmui.org/images/stories/news/pdf/hcb15okt09.pdf 16 16 http://halol.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=64:recognised‐halal‐certification‐bodies&catid=41:2009‐05‐12‐20‐46‐45&Itemid=75 .

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31 31 and now and call for a solution soon. Mr. Ali Eddaoudi, the main Muslim chaplain of the Dutch Armed Forces, and as such not only responsible for spiritual advice to soldiers but also for organizational advice to an organization that has to feed Muslims, is all in favor of the development of a national halal certificate in the Netherlands. Such a standard should in his vision be accredited both by leading international religious and professional Muslim authorities ('If you have both Saudi Arabia and Malaysia you're in.”) as well as by the Dutch government. Most of the other interviewees agreed, with the exception of HVV/HFFIA which objected to the government playing a key role in this, or any other overarching organization, as they regarded themselves already as the supreme Dutch halal authority. But thinking that of oneself is not sufficient. It is rather the others who have to bestow such authority on you. em você. 4.4.1. The Public Interest. For which different 'Publics'? Should there be such a public national halal standard? There are enough public interests at stake here. In the first place of course for the specialized public of 'Muslim consumers' and 'Muslim traders and other businesses. But there are also interests of the whole Dutch public involved: honesty in trade, general safety and security of products, combating fraud, and last but not least export interests: the reputation of Dutch products in international Muslim markets with their fast growing purchasing power. alimentação. After all, the Dutch have quite a history in trading with 'the East'. History could repeat itself. Just as the requirements for 'certificates of origin' of the belligerent countries during the first World War imposed on imports from the Netherlands forced the country to replace a variety of private quality labels in the Dutch dairy industry by publicly sanctioned State Butter and Cheese Certificates ('Rijksbotermerken' and 'Rijkskaasmerken'), import barriers in Muslim countries could force the Netherlands to create publicly sanctioned halal certificates. Product quality certificates are clearly a 'public good' as defined in economics: they are non‐ rival and non‐excludable. These characteristics they share with all publicly available information. The A information the labels provide are accessible/readable by all. And they may be useful to all (even for those with anti‐Muslim feelings and animal activists; for them it may be a sign not to buy this good); albeit that some consumers may attach more importance to it than others. However, that holds for many more public goods that are usually paid out of tax income. Free streets, squares and parks are available to all, but usually enjoyed by the citizens living in the neighborhood. Sanitary inspection of meat, as by the Dutch Food Inspection, is for all, but only non‐vegetarians profit from it. Yet, though public goods, they apparently can be privately financed. Some are willing to pay a price for them. However, these are not those for whom the certificates are intended, the consumers. The certificates are paid for by the producers and sellers. And that is exactly part of the problem, the moral hazard problem that this way of funding introduces, the temptation to be flexible with enforcement, and to aid in 'halal' product laundering. 4.4.2. The Possibilities of Private Law Of course the state does in principle already provide support for economic transactions through private law, Commercial law, contract law, tort law provide institutional frameworks for private commercial transactions and protect transaction partners from the dangers of fraud and deception ‐ and these concern of course also transactions over halal products. Under the Dutch Civil Code, Book 6 art. arte. 193 and 194, false product certification would be considered misleading advertising, and that would be a case of tort, which would justify a claim for compensation. Since 2005 there is also a European directive which forbids and sanctions dishonest trade practices (2005/29/EG), including such misleading advertising. Book 3, art. 44 and 228 of the Civil Code deal more generally with 'errors' ( dwaling ) in transactions, like saying something about a product that is false, or withholding relevant information in a transaction. That in itself alone could be a reason for retroactive annulment of the agreement, which means that the one for whom the information was hidden can claim his money back. If the 'error' was made intentionally, that too would be a case of torts, and justify a claim for compensation (Verkade 2009).

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32 32 Such protection from fraud through private law has however a number of serious drawbacks. First and foremost it is only a solution for the domestic markets; cross‐national consumer transactions may be regulated under different legal systems and these tend to differ substantially as regards contract and tort law, ease to litigate, average tort damages awarded by the courts, etc. But even at the national level there are hindrances that reduce the effectiveness of private law: high costs, few returns, how to express the moral “damage” to a devout Muslim into a monetary value, and last but not least, how to prove it was not halal: a Dutch judge has to decide upon what is halal, for which the Qur'an has to be consulted and will likely meet resistance from the “official” Islam authorities. 4.4.3. Regulation through Public Economic Law There is recently a trend towards more consumer protection under public law, in the wake of the decades of market liberalization. Notwithstanding the overkill of consumer information and protection 'authorities' – such as the Advertisting Code Committee, ConsuWijzer and more ‐ these public agencies pay as yet no attention whatsoever to halal products for the close to one million Dutch Muslim consumers. os consumidores. A search for the topic 'halal' on the websites of the Consumer Protection Authority, the VWA, NMa, AID, the Advertising Code Committee, and even the official commodities information website ConsuWijzer result in exactly '0' search results. Apparently the topic has not even crossed the mind of the respective state authorities. For other cases of misleading advertisement there is more attention, such as for promotion of food and herbal products for medicinal properties, or for toys that look so much like real food that children might be tempted to swallow them. Clearly, so far have Dutch authorities refused to get involved with measures under economic public law as regards halal, as they do not consider themselves responsible for the enforcement of religious norms. And even if they would be willing to engage themselves, Muslims might be wary about entrusting the quality of their religious safety to a secular western public authority; although that might be less the case with foreign Muslim countries, which want to import Dutch goods. They see on Dutch products only 'made in Holland', but they are interested to know whether these are halal, as only halal stuff passes their customs inspections. 4.4.4. Public Regulation of Religious Food Standards in the US In the US there has been a history of public involvement with religious food standards, from which something could be learned. Since 1915, starting in New York, altogether 22 US states have enacted Kosher Fraud Statutes under pressure from Jewish lobby groups. These laws were a reaction to similar problems as now experienced by the European Muslim community. Non‐kosher foods were being sold as kosher, and the states felt a responsibility to protect their Jewish citizens from such fraud. It was a Foi uma form of private ‐ public cooperation: the definition of halal was made by orthodox Hebrew rabbis; the enforcement of the standards was a public responsibility (We owe this information to a presentation by Tetty Havinga). In the Netherlands this might be an option too 17 17 , as there is a long history of cooperation between state and church, as eg apparent from the public funding of private religious organizations (schools, hospitals, broadcasting associations, etc.). 4.4.5. New Public‐Private International Partnerships? Considering this history it would be conceivable that a new form of public‐private cooperation could develop around the enforcement of halal claims. In principle halal certificates could be protected by private law, by general requirements of honest trade. However, that would require a formal registration of the term 'halal'. Registration as copyright or brand under intellectual property right legislation is of course not possible, as that is only relevant for when someone pretends to be able to claim the 'property' of the term. Obviously that is not possible with the term Halal. Separate public legislation, analogous to that in the US would have to be drawn up. That would require at least two minimal conditions: 17 17 In the US the laws have eventually been declared unconstitutional as they infringed upon the constitutional separation of church and state. The Netherlands might encounter fewer problems as traditionally a close cooperation between state and church exists.

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33 33 a‐ the Muslim community is able to agree of a common definition of 'halal' and its concrete operationalizations when it comes to specific products; this notwithstanding the heterogeneity of this community b‐ Public authorities would be willing and able to enforce private standards. In general, this would be the world upside down: rather than having private organizations aiding in the implementation and enforcement of public regulation, as has been quite common in Dutch history, here we would have a case of the opposite: the public implementation and enforcement of private regulation. However, recent history has seen the emergence of similar cases. In our globalizing world, more and more standards are drawn up by international private NGOs or other bodies; and these are then subsequently adopted by nation‐states for public enforcement in their jurisdictions. Such has been the case in the regulation of global financial markets or in fair trade and sustainable development. de desenvolvimento. An example is the EU and its member states adopting and sanctioning the certificates for sustainability, drawn up by private international bodies such as the Forest Stewardship Council or the Marine Stewardship Council. If the Muslims manage to get their act together and agree on international halal standards, these could possibly also be adopted and enforced by nation‐states. Attempts in this direction are currently made both by public actors such as Muslim States that combine religious authority and public authority and sanctions (Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Saudi Arabia, Turkey) as well as the emerging international private organizations of halal certifiers, such as the recently founded European Association of Halal Certifiers (see Sunday's Zaman article). It would require that the Muslim world manages to agree on a uniform standard for halal products, which would not only satisfy the needs of Muslims, but which would also be acceptable to non‐Muslim societies including their animal rights movements. Some of the international halal organizations established by modern Muslim countries like the JAKIM and IHI Alliance (Malaysia), the World Halal Council (Thailand) and the very recent European AHC might be able to provide such a basis for public‐private regulation of global halal markets. 5. 5. Conclusion: a Solution to Halal in Crisis? Halal has posed many difficult problems which appear unlikely to be solved soon. Many multinationals are eager to enter the still unexploited halal market that is within reach but remains unattainable despite many efforts and the large potential. Muslim consumers cannot and often do not want to trust halal products offered by “western” organizations or coming from increasingly large production chains, as the risk of inadvertedly eating Haram – and thus the violation of their moral values – is perceived to be too large. And even though the bulk of the halal market is still in hands of the actors in the local “uncle‐and‐aunty” market, recent scandals such as the pork kebab and Imams certifying haram products has damaged it's reputation. Moreover, newer generations Muslims increasingly prefer modern shopping in convenient supermarkets and refuse to take over their parents' local butcheries and groceries which are the main providers for halal products. At the same time, these newer generations are increasingly aware of their halal consumption and demand more transparency and clarity concerning the halal status of products. Fragmentation of the Muslims on both the global and local level hinders a solution in the form of a central representative Islamic body to write down a very much sought‐after halal norm, despite many efforts such as IHI international from Malaysia and the European Association for Halal Certifiers. Moreover, international trade in halal has been disturbed by differences in halal standards, certificate laundering and fraud, resulting in shiploads of Dutch products that end at the bottom of the sea or garbage belt of Muslim countries, the Netherlands being put on black lists or a damaged reputation of the Dutch export products. The provision of certificates by private actors to tackle the problems has not solved any, but on the contrary created yet more problems. Many fake or low quality certificates exists, and the competent certifying agencies are in constant conflict with each other over the definition of halal, the

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34 34 control of halal quality and each other's procedures. This has led to the emergence of an opaque market with exacerbated prices, fraud and all those problems that are present in a newly emerging market that is unregulated. Taken all together, the halal market is in crisis and is in need of regulation. Despite these obvious problems and the need for regulation, the government has refused to become involved. The call for less regulation in the recent elections combined with anti‐Islamic sentiments created by among others Wilders' party for the freedom and international scandals such as the Danish cartoons make it quite unlikely that the government is very willing to move into the market for halal products. Nevertheless, no matter which solution will be chosen of the one's discussed in this paper or any other one, governmental cooperation seems to be unavoidable. Moreover, the need for regulation is not limited to a national level with national actors, but requires cooperation on a international level with other governments and international actors such as Muslim organizations, the religious authorities of Egypt and Saudi‐Arabia and professional authorities such as Malaysia and Indonesia. Indonésia. This case seems very similar to the early mentioned dairy scandals around 1917; first regulation of the export quality of products due to international pressure and demand, followed by domestic regulation later in time. Could the halal crisis lead to a repetition of history? Additionally, the fact that the halal status of a product can become haram at every single step throughout the production chain, requires a “farm‐to‐fork” approach and thus cooperation on local level, but also international level. The multi‐actor, multi‐level cooperation that the solution of the problem requires might be too complex for the current state of the market to handle. Pragmatic solutions such as writing down a Dutch halal norm to start with could be the first step in the right direction. direção. Complex supervising processes by accreditation organizations such as JAKIM of Malaysia and MUI of Indonesia have shown that much is possible, as long as sufficient urgency is given to the problem and both the government and individual certifying agencies take up their responsibility. The A reversed California effect – that is, halal norms imposed on Dutch products by international requirements – in combination with a increasingly wealthy, critical and outspoken Muslim minority in the Netherlands and the carrot of entering the attractive halal market for both the government and Dutch organizations, might give the necessary push for the actors to finally cooperate and get actively involved in the search for a solution to the current crisis in the market for halal. Not only the pious Muslim will be grateful for a safer consumption and thus a calmer conscience, but also the certifiers, exporters, multinationals, international trade partners and in the end the Dutch trade interests in general will profit from a regulated market for halal products and certificates.

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38 38 Tieman, M. Nieuwe norm voor Halal logistiek (IHI AS01). January 4, 2010. Retrieved on April 3, 2010 on: http://www.delaatstemeter.nl/gastcolumns/halal‐de‐nieuwe‐norm‐in‐logistiek‐ihi‐as‐2/ Teulings, Coen, Lans Bovenberg, and Harry van Dalen (2003) De calculus van het publieke belang, Den Haag: Kenniscentrum voor Ordeningsvraagstukken Verkade, DWF (2009) Oneerlijke handelspraktijken, Deventer: Kluwer Vikør, KS The development of ijtihad and Islamic reform, 1750‐1850. Vikør, KS O desenvolvimento da reforma ijtihad e islâmico, 1750-1850. The third Nordic conference on Middle Eastern Studies: Ethnic encounter and culture change. Joensuu, Finland, 19‐22 June 1995. Vogel, David (1986) National Styles of Regulation. Environmental Policy in Great Britain and The United States, Ithaca/London (Cornell University Press) Vogel, David (1995) Trading Up. Consumer and Environmental Regulation in a Global Economy, Cambridge (Harvard UP) Vogel, Steven K. (1996) Freer Markets, More Rules: Regulatory Reform in the Advanced Industrial Countries, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press Waarden, Frans van (1982) 'Machtsverschuivingen tussen kapitaal en arbeid in de overgang naar de verzorgingsstaat. Over personeelstekort en arbeidsmarktpolitiek van Twentse textielfabrikanten', in JAP van Hoof ea (eds) Macht en onmacht van het management, Samsom, Alphen aan de Rijn Waarden, Frans van (1985a) 'Regulering en belangenorganisatie van ondernemers', in FL van Holthoon (ed.) De Nederlandse samenleving sinds 1815, Van Gorcum, Assen Waarden, Frans van (1985b) 'Varieties of Collective Self‐Regulation of Business: the Example of the Dutch Dairy Industry'. In Wolfgang Streeck en Philippe Schmitter (red.), Private Interest Government. Beyond Market and State, London: Sage. Waarden, Frans van (1992) 'Emergence and Development of Business' Interest Associations. An Example from the Netherlands', in Organization Studies, Volume 13, Nr. 4, Fall, pp. 521‐561 Waarden, Frans van (1995) 'Breekt Nederland zijn dijken door?', in Economisch‐Statistische Berichten, vol. 80, 80, no. não. 3993, pp. 52‐57 Waarden, Frans van (1998) 'Transacties over taxi's', in Economisch‐Statistische Berichten Vol. 83, No. 4135 (16 January) , pp.28‐32 Waarden, Frans van (1999a) 'European Harmonization of National Regulatory Styles?', in John AEVervaele et al (eds) Compliance and Enforcement of European Community Law, Deventer (Kluwer Law), pp. 95‐124 Waarden, Frans van (1999b) 'Elk land zijn eigen trant', in Wieger Bakker and Frans van Waarden (eds) Ruimte rond regels. Reguleringsstijlen vergeleken, Jaarboek 1999 Beleid en Maatschappij, Amsterdam and Meppel (uitgeverij Boom) Waarden, Frans van (2002a) 'Market Institutions as Communicating Vessels: Changes between Economic Coordination Principles as a Consequence of Deregulation Policies', in J. Rogers Hollingsworth, Karl H. Mueller, and Ellen Jane Hollingsworth (eds) Advancing Socio‐Economics. An Institutionalist Perspective, Lanham, Boulder, New York and Oxford (Rowman and Littlefield), pp. 171‐212 Waarden, Frans van (2002b) 'Deregulation: Trading in one Governance Mechanism for Less Efficient Others?'. Wirtschaftspolitische Blaetter, 55/3: 1‐20. Waarden, Frans van (2006) 'Taste, Traditions, Transactions, and Trust: The Public and Private Regulation of Food', in Christopher Ansell and David Vogel (eds) What's the Beef? The Contested Governance of European Food Safety, Cambridge MA: MIT Press, pp. 35‐59

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39 39 Waarden, Frans van (2007) 'Where to find a 'Demos' for Controlling Global Risk Regulators? From Private to Public Regulation and Back', in Jean‐Christophe Graz and Andreas Noelke (eds) Transnational Private Governance and its Limits, London and New York: Routledge/ECPR Studies in European Political Science, pp. 84‐97 Waarden, Frans van (2010) 'Governing Global Commons: The Public‐Private Protection of Fish and Forests', to appear in Johan Swinnen, Jan Wouters, Miet Maertens and Axel Marx (eds) Private Standards and Global Governance. Governança. Legal and Economic Perspectives, London (Edward Elgar) Westra, Jenny (2007) 'Halal is hot. “Nederlanders worden de dijkenbouwers van de halal‐logistiek”', in Supply Chain Magazine, nr. 10, pp. 36‐39 Williamson, Oliver E. (1975) Markets and Hierarchies: Analysis and Anti‐Trust Implications: A Study in the Economics of Internal Organization, New York (Free Press) Williamson, Oliver E. (1996) The Economic Institutions of Capitalism, New York: Free Press Wilson, Bee (2008) Swindled: The Dark History of Food Fraud, from Poisoned Candy to Counterfeit Coffee, Princeton: Princeton UP Yucel, Suzan. Halal! Of toch niet? Blog on wijblijvenhier.nl, November 27, 2007 Appendix 1. Apêndice 1. Dutch Television Documentaries on Halal ‐ NioScoop. Hoe halal is halal? Nederlandse Islamitische omroep, Nioweb. January 31, 2010. (http://www.nioweb.nl/2010/01/27/nioscoop‐31‐januari) ‐ RVU, Keuringsdienst van Waarde Keuringsdienst van Waarde onderzoekt de exotische gehaktstaaf (http://sites.rvu.nl/page/7202) ‐ VARA. Welkom in Nederland. Halal. (about Dutch halal producer Mekkafoods in Venlo) June 23, 2009. (http://player.omroep.nl/?aflid=9704660) Appendix 2. Apêndice 2. List of People Interviewed ‐ 10‐02‐2010 mr. AI Farouk, Association for Halal Certificates, Amsterdam ‐ 20‐02‐2010 mr. Wahid Ramdjan and the imam of HIC, Rotterdam ‐ 22‐02‐2010 mr. Renë van Appeldoorn, Mekkafoods, Venlo‐Kaldenkirchen ‐ 24‐02‐2010 mr. Ben Ali‐Salah and colleague, Halal Correct, Leyden ‐ 05‐03‐2010 mr. Abdul Munim Al Chaman, HQC and Halal Control Office, The Hague ‐ 10‐03‐2010 mr. Murat Korkmazyurek, Halal Audit Company, Rotterdam ‐ 15‐03‐2010 mr. Abdul Qayyoem and imam, HVV/HFFIA, The Hague ‐ 18‐03‐2010 ms. Alima El Haddaoui, intern at HIC and author of thesis ‐ 29‐03‐2010 mr. Ali Eddaoudi, Chief Imam of the Dutch Military, The Hague ‐ 30‐03‐2010 mr. Ali Erdem, sales manager ANUR snacks (part of vd Laan), at Paris Halal Expo ‐ 30‐03‐2010 representative of Robert Co (major Danish halal producer), at Paris Halal Expo ‐ 30‐03‐2010 mr. Zetali, Qibla halal (Swedish), at Paris Halal Expo ‐ 30‐03‐2010 ms. Fabienne Frebat, private label meat producer for Carrefour, Casino, Paris Expo ‐ 30‐03‐2010 representative VDE Foods, producer of Halal snacks, Belgium, at Paris Halal Expo

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40 40 Appendix 3: Some Samples of Certificates: Stickers to be put on Halal Products:

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41 41

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42 42 Fake 'Do-it-Yourself' Halal Certificate that we made from the web (at our address in Almere): ã ã شــــــﻩادة ذبــــــــــــح حـــــــلال Halal Slaughtering Certificate Organization Name do hereby testify that shipment of meat beef /calves/buffaloes/goats/chickens has been slaughtered according to the Islamic Rights and Principles. Accordingly, this meet is HALAL and suitable for Muslims use. uso. Necessary actions have been taken to prevent mixing HALAL meat with HARAM ones. Slaughtering procces has been performed in slaughter house where bigs slaughtering is prohibited. الجﻩة المعنية تشﻩد بأن شحنة لحوم البقر/العجول/الجاموس/الماعز/الأغنام/الدواجن قد تم ذبحﻩا ًﺎﻌﺒﺗ للقواعد و الضوابط الإسلامية. ولذلك فإن شحنة اللحوم تعتبر ًﻻﻼﺣ وصالحة لاستﻩلاك كافة المسلمين. اتخذت الاحتياطات اللازمة لمنع خلط اللحوم الحلال باللحوم الحرام. و أجريت عملية الذبح في مسلخ لاتذبح فيﻩ الخنازير اسم الشركة المصنعة\ Company Name Halal Slaughter مقر شركة التصنيع \ Company Address Uzman Krug 23, Ankara الوزن الصافي \ Net Weight 250.00 250.00 LBS LBS , 114.00 KGS عدد الصناديق\ Cases Number 15 15 cases casos [- - - - - S hipping D etailes - - - - -] وسيلة الشحن\ Shipping Method Vessel Navio البلد المنشأ\ Country of Origin Turkey Turquia ميناء التفريغ\ Off Loading Port Amsterdam Amsterdam الوجﻩة المقصودة\ Destination Almere المورد\ Exporter Muzde Halal عتوان المورد\ Address Muftikaftan 23, Ankara المستورد\ Importer Halal Slaughter عنوان المستورد\ Address Rapsodieplantsoen 11, Almere [- - - - - S laughter I ng D etailes - - - - -] المسلخ\ Slaughtering House Halal Meat تاريخ الذبح\ Slaughtering Date December / 2009 Dezembro / 2009 تاريخ الانتاج\ Producing Date December / 2009 Dezembro / 2009 تاريخ الانتﻩاء\ Expiry Date March / 2010 رقم الشﻩادة الصحية\ Health Certificate No MPG 23 23 المندوب المفوض\ AUTHORIZED REPRESENTATIVE OF ________________ CODE مشرف الذبح\SLAUGHTERING SUPERVISOR_____________________ التوقيع\SIGNATURE_____________________ 2701 Briggs Chaney Road Silver Springs, Maryland 20905 Office +240 350 6909 Fax 301 384 2975 Email ICFHC@hotmail.com